Energy Performance of Buildings - Energy Efficiency and Built Environment in Temperate Climates

Preface

Contents

1 The Built Environment and Its Policies

Abstract

1.1 Buildings Throughout Time

1.2 Energy in Buildings: From Sufficiency to Efficiency

1.3 Requirements for Future Buildings

1.4 Sustainable Buildings

1.5 The Built Environment and Its Policies: the Case of the Mediterranean Basin

Part I Challenges and Priorities for a Sustainable Built Environment

2 Climatic Change in the Built Environment in Temperate Climates with Emphasis on the Mediterranean Area

Abstract

2.1 Introduction

2.2 The Multi-Fold Relationship Between Cities and Climate Change

2.3 Urbanization in Europe

2.4 Climate Change in Europe

2.5 Climate in the Mediterranean Area

2.6 Climate Change in the Mediterranean Area

2.7 Impacts of Climate Change on Cities

2.8 Conclusion

References

3 The Role of Buildings in Energy Systems

Abstract

3.1 Sustainability and Construction Activity

3.2 Energy Consumption in Buildings

3.2.1 Overall Energy Consumption in the Building Sector

3.2.2 Energy Consumption Per Fuel Type and Renewable Energy Sources (RES)

3.3 Means of Reducing Energy Consumption

3.3.1 Energy Efficiency

3.4 Embodied Energy of Structural Materials and Components

3.5 Assessment Methods

3.5.1 Introduction

3.5.2 Environmental Assessment of Structural Products and Processes

3.5.3 Environmental Assessment Methods for Buildings and Construction Works

3.5.3.1 BREEAM (BRE Environmental Assessment Method)

3.5.3.2 SBTOOL (Sustainable Buildings Tool)

3.5.3.3 Green Globes

3.5.3.4 LEED® (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)

3.5.3.5 CASBEE (Comprehensive Assessment System for Building Environmental Efficiency)

3.6 Discussion

References

4 Challenges and Priorities for a Sustainable Built Environment in Southern Europe—The Impact of Energy Efficiency Measures and Renewable Energies on Employment

Abstract

4.1 Introduction

4.2 The Built Environment—Defining the Challenges and Priorities in Southern Europe

4.2.1 Fighting Economic and Social Stratification Discrimination Through Energy Investment

4.3 Conclusions

References

5 Indicators for Buildings’ Energy Performance

Abstract

5.1 Introduction

5.1.1 Background

5.1.1.1 Buildings’ Energy Analysis

5.1.2 European Landscape

5.2 The Resulting Taxonomy

5.3 Decision-Making Framework

5.4 Findings

5.5 Discussion

References

6 Life Cycle Versus Carbon Footprint Analysis for Construction Materials

Abstract

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Methodological Approach

6.3 Results and Discussion

6.4 Conclusions

References

7 Economic Experiments Used for the Evaluation of Building Users’ Energy-Saving Behavior

Abstract

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Literature Review

7.3 Experimental Design

7.4 Results

7.5 Conclusions

7.6 Further Investigations

References

8 Technologies and Socio-economic Strategies to nZEB in the Building Stock of the Mediterranean Area

Abstract

8.1 Towards Nearly Zero Energy Urban Settings in the Mediterranean Climate

8.1.1 State of the Art and Crucial Issues in the Urban Environment of the Mediterranean Areas. A Case Study of the Athens Metropolitan Area (AMA)

8.1.2 Policy Background and Zero Energy Case Studies

8.1.3 Low Carbon Communities and Grass-Roots Initiatives in the Urban Environment

8.2 Towards “Nearly Zero Energy” and Socio-oriented Urban Settings in the Mediterranean Climate

8.3 Energy Retrofitting Scenarios of Existing Buildings to Achieve nZEBs: The Case Study of the Peristeri Workers’ Houses’ Urban Compound

8.3.1 Energy Performance Evaluation in the Buildings as Built

8.3.2 Energy Retrofitting Scenarios of Existing Buildings in the Peristeri Urban Compound

8.3.3 Cost-Benefit Analysis

8.3.4 First Conclusions on the Peristeri Urban Compound and Further Design Scenarios

8.3.5 Energy and Cost Benefits of Volumetric Addition in Energy Retrofitting Actions

8.3.6 Low Versus High Transformation Retrofitting Options Towards Near Zero Energy in Existing Buildings

8.4 Conclusions

References

Part II The Built Environment

9 Households: Trends and Perspectives

Abstract

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Analysis of Data in the Crisis Period

9.2.1 Household Energy Consumption

9.2.2 Population Change

9.2.3 Building Stock

9.2.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions

9.2.5 Discussion of Data

9.3 Housing and Living Quality

9.3.1 Overcrowding Rate

9.3.2 Severe Housing Deprivation Rate

9.3.3 Housing Cost Overburden Rate

9.4 Energy Poverty

9.4.1 Inability to Keep Homes Adequately Warm

9.4.2 People Living in Dwellings with Poor Conditions

9.4.3 Difficulties Paying the Bills

9.4.4 Population Living in Uncomfortable Dwellings

9.5 Conclusions

References

10 Office BuildingsCommercial Buildings: Trends and Perspectives

Abstract

10.1 Introduction

10.2 The Zero Energy Buildings’ Perspectives in the Mediterranean Region

10.3 Office Buildings as ZEB in the Mediterranean Region

10.3.1 Office Building in Crete, Greece

10.3.2 Laboratory Building in Cyprus

10.4 Conclusions and Future Prospects

References

11 Energy Efficiency in Hospitals: Historical Development, Trends and Perspectives

Abstract

11.1 Introduction: On the Evolution of Hospital Buildings

11.2 On the Use of Energy in Hospitals

11.3 Thermal Comfort, Indoor Air Quality, and Hygiene

11.4 Improving Energy Efficiency and Reducing Energy Costs: Energy Optimization

11.4.1 Monitoring of Energy Efficiency

11.4.2 Analysis of Energy Consumption

11.4.3 Energy Optimization

11.5 Conclusions

References

12 The Hotel Industry: Current Situation and Its Steps Beyond Sustainability

Abstract

12.1 Introduction

12.2 An Overview of Energy Performance in Hotels

12.2.1 Tourism in Countries with Temperate Climates

12.2.2 Basic Figures for the Greek Sector

12.3 Features of the Hotel Industry in Countries with Temperate Climates

12.4 Beyond Energy: Hotels and Sustainability

12.5 Conclusions

References

13 Schools: Trends and Perspectives

Abstract

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Methodology

13.3 Schools’ Building Stock Data

13.4 Pilot Schools’ Comfort and Energy Performance Investigation

13.4.1 Indoor Environmental Conditions

13.4.1.1 Studies Comparing Thermal Comfort and Energy Efficiency

13.5 Field Measurements of Climatic Parameters in a Typical School Building

13.6 Energy Simulations and Upgrade Scenarios of a Typical School

13.7 Conclusions

References

Part III Building’s Design and Systems

14 New Challenges in Covering Buildings’ Thermal Load

Abstract

14.1 Introduction

14.1.1 Defining Building Energy Supply Technologies

14.1.2 Building Energy Supply Technologies in Temperate Climates

14.1.3 Building Energy Systems in Retrofitting

14.2 Shifting the Paradigm

14.2.1 The Zero Energy Building Agenda and the Regulatory Environment

14.2.2 The Smart Decarbonized Grid Landscape and the Connected Building

14.2.3 Thermal Comfort and Energy Supply

14.3 Energy Technologies for Building Supply

14.3.1 The Heat-Power Nexus (Interdependency of Electrical and Thermal Energy in the Built Environment)

14.3.2 Emerging Building Energy Systems

14.3.2.1 Microgeneration (or the Distributed Generation Narrative)

14.3.2.2 Heat Pumps

14.3.2.3 Solar Thermal Collectors

14.3.2.4 Energy Storage (Thermal)

14.3.3 Building Energy Management Systems

14.4 Envisioning the Building of the Future (Is the All-Electric Building the Future?)

References

15 Energy Technologies for Building Supply Systems: MCHP

Abstract

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Prime Mover Technologies and Market Survey

15.2.1 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines (ICE)

15.2.2 Reciprocating External Combustion Stirling Engines (SE)

15.2.3 Fuel Cells (FC)

15.2.4 Gas and Steam Micro-turbines (MT)

15.2.5 Photovoltaic Thermal (PVT) Generators

15.3 Operating Schemes

15.4 Regulatory Framework

15.4.1 Micro-cogeneration Testing Procedures

15.4.2 State of the Art: Experimental Results and Simulation Tools

15.5 ConclusionsDiscussion

References

16 The State of the Art for Technologies Used to Decrease Demand in Buildings: Thermal Energy Storage

Abstract

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Materials Used for TES in Buildings

16.2.1 Sensible Heat

16.2.2 Latent Heat

16.2.3 Thermochemical Reactions

16.3 Passive Technologies

16.3.1 Introduction

16.3.2 Sensible Passive Systems

16.3.2.1 Integration in Building Components

16.3.3 Latent Passive Systems

16.3.3.1 Integration in the Building

16.3.3.2 Environmental Impact

16.4 Active Systems

16.4.1 Introduction

16.4.2 Free-Cooling Systems

16.4.3 Building Integrated Active Systems

16.4.3.1 Integration of the TES Into the Core of the Building

16.4.3.2 Integration of the TES in External Façades

16.4.3.3 Integration of the TES in Suspended Ceilings and Ventilation Systems

16.4.3.4 Integration of the TES in the PV System

16.4.3.5 Integration of the TES in Water Tanks

16.4.4 Use of TES in Heat Pumps

16.5 Conclusions

References

17 Solar Thermal Systems

Abstract

17.1 Introduction

17.1.1 Solar Energy Collectors

17.1.1.1 Solar Water Heating Collectors

17.1.1.2 Flat-Plate Collector

17.1.1.3 Heat Pipe Evacuated Tube Collector

17.1.1.4 Water-in-Glass Evacuated Tube Collector

17.1.2 Solar Air Heating Collectors

17.1.2.1 Unglazed Solar Air Heating Collector

17.1.2.2 Glazed Solar Air Heating Collector

17.1.3 Solar Water Heating Systems

17.1.4 Forced Circulation SWHS

17.1.5 Thermosyphon SWHS

17.2 Solar Thermal Cooling Systems

17.2.1 Solar Absorption Cooling System

17.2.2 Solar Adsorption Cooling System

17.2.3 Solar Desiccant Cooling Systems

17.2.4 Solar Ejector Cooling System

17.2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages

17.2.6 Overview of Solar Cooling Systems

17.2.7 Solar Cooling System Costs

17.3 Solar Air Heating System

17.3.1 Solar Absorption Heat Pump System

17.4 Building Integrated Solar Thermal Systems

17.4.1 Façade Integrations

17.4.2 Roof Integrated Systems

17.4.3 Balconies and Walls

References

18 Solar Energy for Building Supply

Abstract

18.1 Introduction

18.2 PV Modules and Cells

18.2.1 Electricity Production

18.2.2 The Components

18.2.3 Dependency of Energy Generated on System Installation

18.2.4 Production

18.2.5 Integration of Solar Modules in Buildings

18.3 ?ypes of PV Cells

18.3.1 Types of PV Cells Depending on the Semiconductor Material

18.3.2 Types of PV Cells According to the Type of Junction

18.3.3 Types of PV Cells According to the Method of Manufacture

18.3.4 Types of PV Cells According to the Devices of the System that Utilizes Solar Radiation

18.3.5 Semitransparent Modules (Crystalline Glass-Glass Module)

18.4 I–V Curve and Losses

18.4.1 Characteristic I–V Curve of a PV Cell—Power Curve

18.5 Types of Building Integration

18.6 Conclusion

References

19 The State of the Art for Technologies Used to Decrease Demand in Buildings: Thermal Insulation

Abstract

19.1 Thermal Insulation Materials

19.2 Foamed Materials

19.3 Fibrous Materials

19.4 Construction Solutions

19.4.1 Vertical Building Elements

19.4.2 Horizontal Building Elements

19.5 Conclusions

Reference

20 Cool Materials

Abstract

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Construction Materials Under Solar Radiation

20.2.1 Construction and Building Solutions for Cool Applications

20.3 Cool Materials for Building Applications

20.3.1 White and Light-Colored Materials

20.3.2 Cool Colored Materials

20.3.3 Advanced Materials

20.4 Cool Materials for Urban Applications

20.5 Potentialities of Cool Materials Applications

20.5.1 Saving Energy with Cool Roofs

20.5.2 Mitigating the Urban Temperatures with Cool Materials

20.6 Cool Roofs Case Studies

20.6.1 Senior Recreation Building in Rome, Italy

20.6.2 OfficeSchool Building in Trapani, Sicily, Italy

20.6.3 School Building in Athens, Greece

20.6.4 School Building in Heraklion, Crete, Greece

Bibliography

21 Shading and Daylight Systems

Abstract

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Shading

21.3 Daylight Systems

21.3.1 Lightshelf

21.3.2 Blinds

21.3.3 Daylight Transporting Systems

21.3.4 Heliostat

References

22 The State of the Art for Technologies Used to Decrease Demand in Buildings: Electric Lighting

Abstract

22.1 Energy Consumption by Electric Lighting

22.2 Policies and Standards

22.3 Energy Performance Factors for Lighting Installations

22.4 Maintenance and Life Cycle

22.5 Comparison of Technologies

22.5.1 Lamps

22.5.1.1 LED Replacement Lamps

22.5.2 Luminaires

22.5.3 LED Luminaires

22.5.4 OLED Luminaires

22.6 Daylighting Utilization

22.7 Lighting Design

22.8 Conclusions

Reference

Part IV The Microclimatic Environment

23 Tools and Strategies for Microclimatic Analysis of the Built Environment

Abstract

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification

23.3 Orientation Analysis

23.4 Passive Design Strategies for Mediterranean Climate

23.5 Passive Design Strategies for Mediterranean Climate

23.6 Climograms—Case Study of Barcelona

23.7 Summary of Design Strategies for Mediterranean Cities

23.8 Passive Strategies for Winter

23.9 Conclusion

References

24 Microclimatic Improvement

Abstract

24.1 Introduction

24.2 Defining Microclimate

24.2.1 Properties of Mediterranean Climate

24.2.2 Meso-Scale Conditions

24.2.2.1 Topography

24.2.2.2 Wind

24.2.2.3 Bodies of Water

24.2.2.4 Vegetation

24.2.2.5 Artificial Elements

24.2.3 Main Physical Parameters on the Local Scale

24.3 Mediterranean Settlement and Microclimate

24.4 Strategies in Microclimatic Improvement

24.4.1 Building as Modifier of Microclimate (North America 1910–1948)

24.4.2 Sequences of Dampening Spaces (Andalusia 9th–14th Centuries)

24.4.3 Collaboration Between Construction and Microclimate (Corse 2011)

24.4.4 Social Spaces and Evapotranspiration (Castile 2004)

24.4.5 Blurring and Dematerialization (Southern France 1961 and 2003–2007)

24.5 Conclusions

References

25 Modelling and Bioclimatic Interventions in Outdoor Spaces

Abstract

25.1 Introduction

25.2 The Optimum Modelling Tool

25.3 Using Computational Fluid Dynamics in the Bioclimatic Design of Open Spaces in Two Greek Cities

25.3.1 Bioclimatic Thermal Problem

25.3.2 Bioclimatic Interventions

25.3.3 Model Verification

25.3.4 Comparison of the Mean Maximum Air Temperature

25.3.5 Comparison of the Mean Surface Temperatures

25.4 Urban Microclimatic Improvement Effects on Building Blocks’ Energy Consumption by the Use of Energy Simulation

25.5 The Optimum Modeling Scheme in Bioclimatic Design

25.6 Conclusions

References

Index