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Energy Performance of Buildings - Energy Efficiency and Built Environment in Temperate Climates
Sofia-Natalia Boemi, Olatz Irulegi, Mattheos Santamouris
Verlag Springer-Verlag, 2015
ISBN 9783319208312 , 540 Seiten
Format PDF, OL
Kopierschutz Wasserzeichen
Preface
5
Contents
7
1 The Built Environment and Its Policies
10
Abstract
10
1.1 Buildings Throughout Time
10
1.2 Energy in Buildings: From Sufficiency to Efficiency
12
1.3 Requirements for Future Buildings
14
1.4 Sustainable Buildings
16
1.5 The Built Environment and Its Policies: the Case of the Mediterranean Basin
22
Part I Challenges and Priorities for a Sustainable Built Environment
25
2 Climatic Change in the Built Environment in Temperate Climates with Emphasis on the Mediterranean Area
26
Abstract
26
2.1 Introduction
26
2.2 The Multi-Fold Relationship Between Cities and Climate Change
27
2.3 Urbanization in Europe
29
2.4 Climate Change in Europe
30
2.5 Climate in the Mediterranean Area
31
2.6 Climate Change in the Mediterranean Area
32
2.7 Impacts of Climate Change on Cities
35
2.8 Conclusion
39
References
39
3 The Role of Buildings in Energy Systems
44
Abstract
44
3.1 Sustainability and Construction Activity
45
3.2 Energy Consumption in Buildings
47
3.2.1 Overall Energy Consumption in the Building Sector
47
3.2.2 Energy Consumption Per Fuel Type and Renewable Energy Sources (RES)
49
3.3 Means of Reducing Energy Consumption
50
3.3.1 Energy Efficiency
50
3.4 Embodied Energy of Structural Materials and Components
53
3.5 Assessment Methods
56
3.5.1 Introduction
56
3.5.2 Environmental Assessment of Structural Products and Processes
61
3.5.3 Environmental Assessment Methods for Buildings and Construction Works
62
3.5.3.1 BREEAM (BRE Environmental Assessment Method)
63
3.5.3.2 SBTOOL (Sustainable Buildings Tool)
64
3.5.3.3 Green Globes
64
3.5.3.4 LEED® (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)
65
3.5.3.5 CASBEE (Comprehensive Assessment System for Building Environmental Efficiency)
66
3.6 Discussion
66
References
68
4 Challenges and Priorities for a Sustainable Built Environment in Southern Europe—The Impact of Energy Efficiency Measures and Renewable Energies on Employment
70
Abstract
70
4.1 Introduction
70
4.2 The Built Environment—Defining the Challenges and Priorities in Southern Europe
72
4.2.1 Fighting Economic and Social Stratification Discrimination Through Energy Investment
74
4.3 Conclusions
79
References
83
5 Indicators for Buildings’ Energy Performance
85
Abstract
85
5.1 Introduction
85
5.1.1 Background
87
5.1.1.1 Buildings’ Energy Analysis
87
5.1.2 European Landscape
88
5.2 The Resulting Taxonomy
90
5.3 Decision-Making Framework
93
5.4 Findings
94
5.5 Discussion
96
References
97
6 Life Cycle Versus Carbon Footprint Analysis for Construction Materials
100
Abstract
100
6.1 Introduction
100
6.2 Methodological Approach
102
6.3 Results and Discussion
105
6.4 Conclusions
108
References
109
7 Economic Experiments Used for the Evaluation of Building Users’ Energy-Saving Behavior
112
Abstract
112
7.1 Introduction
113
7.2 Literature Review
114
7.3 Experimental Design
116
7.4 Results
119
7.5 Conclusions
124
7.6 Further Investigations
125
References
126
8 Technologies and Socio-economic Strategies to nZEB in the Building Stock of the Mediterranean Area
127
Abstract
127
8.1 Towards Nearly Zero Energy Urban Settings in the Mediterranean Climate
128
8.1.1 State of the Art and Crucial Issues in the Urban Environment of the Mediterranean Areas. A Case Study of the Athens Metropolitan Area (AMA)
128
8.1.2 Policy Background and Zero Energy Case Studies
130
8.1.3 Low Carbon Communities and Grass-Roots Initiatives in the Urban Environment
131
8.2 Towards “Nearly Zero Energy” and Socio-oriented Urban Settings in the Mediterranean Climate
132
8.3 Energy Retrofitting Scenarios of Existing Buildings to Achieve nZEBs: The Case Study of the Peristeri Workers’ Houses’ Urban Compound
134
8.3.1 Energy Performance Evaluation in the Buildings as Built
138
8.3.2 Energy Retrofitting Scenarios of Existing Buildings in the Peristeri Urban Compound
155
8.3.3 Cost-Benefit Analysis
155
8.3.4 First Conclusions on the Peristeri Urban Compound and Further Design Scenarios
156
8.3.5 Energy and Cost Benefits of Volumetric Addition in Energy Retrofitting Actions
156
8.3.6 Low Versus High Transformation Retrofitting Options Towards Near Zero Energy in Existing Buildings
159
8.4 Conclusions
161
References
164
Part II The Built Environment
168
9 Households: Trends and Perspectives
169
Abstract
169
9.1 Introduction
169
9.2 Analysis of Data in the Crisis Period
170
9.2.1 Household Energy Consumption
170
9.2.2 Population Change
174
9.2.3 Building Stock
175
9.2.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions
179
9.2.5 Discussion of Data
180
9.3 Housing and Living Quality
184
9.3.1 Overcrowding Rate
184
9.3.2 Severe Housing Deprivation Rate
185
9.3.3 Housing Cost Overburden Rate
190
9.4 Energy Poverty
190
9.4.1 Inability to Keep Homes Adequately Warm
192
9.4.2 People Living in Dwellings with Poor Conditions
192
9.4.3 Difficulties Paying the Bills
197
9.4.4 Population Living in Uncomfortable Dwellings
197
9.5 Conclusions
201
References
203
10 Office BuildingsCommercial Buildings: Trends and Perspectives
205
Abstract
205
10.1 Introduction
205
10.2 The Zero Energy Buildings’ Perspectives in the Mediterranean Region
206
10.3 Office Buildings as ZEB in the Mediterranean Region
208
10.3.1 Office Building in Crete, Greece
209
10.3.2 Laboratory Building in Cyprus
210
10.4 Conclusions and Future Prospects
216
References
217
11 Energy Efficiency in Hospitals: Historical Development, Trends and Perspectives
219
Abstract
219
11.1 Introduction: On the Evolution of Hospital Buildings
219
11.2 On the Use of Energy in Hospitals
221
11.3 Thermal Comfort, Indoor Air Quality, and Hygiene
226
11.4 Improving Energy Efficiency and Reducing Energy Costs: Energy Optimization
227
11.4.1 Monitoring of Energy Efficiency
230
11.4.2 Analysis of Energy Consumption
230
11.4.3 Energy Optimization
230
11.5 Conclusions
233
References
234
12 The Hotel Industry: Current Situation and Its Steps Beyond Sustainability
236
Abstract
236
12.1 Introduction
236
12.2 An Overview of Energy Performance in Hotels
237
12.2.1 Tourism in Countries with Temperate Climates
239
12.2.2 Basic Figures for the Greek Sector
239
12.3 Features of the Hotel Industry in Countries with Temperate Climates
241
12.4 Beyond Energy: Hotels and Sustainability
246
12.5 Conclusions
247
References
248
13 Schools: Trends and Perspectives
252
Abstract
252
13.1 Introduction
252
13.2 Methodology
254
13.3 Schools’ Building Stock Data
255
13.4 Pilot Schools’ Comfort and Energy Performance Investigation
259
13.4.1 Indoor Environmental Conditions
260
13.4.1.1 Studies Comparing Thermal Comfort and Energy Efficiency
261
13.5 Field Measurements of Climatic Parameters in a Typical School Building
263
13.6 Energy Simulations and Upgrade Scenarios of a Typical School
265
13.7 Conclusions
267
References
268
Part III Building’s Design and Systems
270
14 New Challenges in Covering Buildings’ Thermal Load
271
Abstract
271
14.1 Introduction
271
14.1.1 Defining Building Energy Supply Technologies
273
14.1.2 Building Energy Supply Technologies in Temperate Climates
275
14.1.3 Building Energy Systems in Retrofitting
275
14.2 Shifting the Paradigm
276
14.2.1 The Zero Energy Building Agenda and the Regulatory Environment
276
14.2.2 The Smart Decarbonized Grid Landscape and the Connected Building
278
14.2.3 Thermal Comfort and Energy Supply
279
14.3 Energy Technologies for Building Supply
281
14.3.1 The Heat-Power Nexus (Interdependency of Electrical and Thermal Energy in the Built Environment)
282
14.3.2 Emerging Building Energy Systems
284
14.3.2.1 Microgeneration (or the Distributed Generation Narrative)
284
14.3.2.2 Heat Pumps
285
14.3.2.3 Solar Thermal Collectors
285
14.3.2.4 Energy Storage (Thermal)
286
14.3.3 Building Energy Management Systems
288
14.4 Envisioning the Building of the Future (Is the All-Electric Building the Future?)
289
References
289
15 Energy Technologies for Building Supply Systems: MCHP
291
Abstract
291
15.1 Introduction
291
15.2 Prime Mover Technologies and Market Survey
296
15.2.1 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines (ICE)
297
15.2.2 Reciprocating External Combustion Stirling Engines (SE)
300
15.2.3 Fuel Cells (FC)
302
15.2.4 Gas and Steam Micro-turbines (MT)
303
15.2.5 Photovoltaic Thermal (PVT) Generators
304
15.3 Operating Schemes
305
15.4 Regulatory Framework
310
15.4.1 Micro-cogeneration Testing Procedures
311
15.4.2 State of the Art: Experimental Results and Simulation Tools
312
15.5 ConclusionsDiscussion
314
References
315
16 The State of the Art for Technologies Used to Decrease Demand in Buildings: Thermal Energy Storage
319
Abstract
319
16.1 Introduction
319
16.2 Materials Used for TES in Buildings
320
16.2.1 Sensible Heat
321
16.2.2 Latent Heat
322
16.2.3 Thermochemical Reactions
325
16.3 Passive Technologies
326
16.3.1 Introduction
326
16.3.2 Sensible Passive Systems
326
16.3.2.1 Integration in Building Components
326
16.3.3 Latent Passive Systems
329
16.3.3.1 Integration in the Building
329
16.3.3.2 Environmental Impact
332
16.4 Active Systems
332
16.4.1 Introduction
332
16.4.2 Free-Cooling Systems
332
16.4.3 Building Integrated Active Systems
333
16.4.3.1 Integration of the TES Into the Core of the Building
334
16.4.3.2 Integration of the TES in External Façades
336
16.4.3.3 Integration of the TES in Suspended Ceilings and Ventilation Systems
337
16.4.3.4 Integration of the TES in the PV System
338
16.4.3.5 Integration of the TES in Water Tanks
338
16.4.4 Use of TES in Heat Pumps
339
16.5 Conclusions
341
References
342
17 Solar Thermal Systems
349
Abstract
349
17.1 Introduction
349
17.1.1 Solar Energy Collectors
350
17.1.1.1 Solar Water Heating Collectors
351
17.1.1.2 Flat-Plate Collector
351
17.1.1.3 Heat Pipe Evacuated Tube Collector
353
17.1.1.4 Water-in-Glass Evacuated Tube Collector
353
17.1.2 Solar Air Heating Collectors
354
17.1.2.1 Unglazed Solar Air Heating Collector
354
17.1.2.2 Glazed Solar Air Heating Collector
355
17.1.3 Solar Water Heating Systems
357
17.1.4 Forced Circulation SWHS
359
17.1.5 Thermosyphon SWHS
360
17.2 Solar Thermal Cooling Systems
361
17.2.1 Solar Absorption Cooling System
362
17.2.2 Solar Adsorption Cooling System
364
17.2.3 Solar Desiccant Cooling Systems
365
17.2.4 Solar Ejector Cooling System
365
17.2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages
366
17.2.6 Overview of Solar Cooling Systems
366
17.2.7 Solar Cooling System Costs
368
17.3 Solar Air Heating System
369
17.3.1 Solar Absorption Heat Pump System
370
17.4 Building Integrated Solar Thermal Systems
372
17.4.1 Façade Integrations
372
17.4.2 Roof Integrated Systems
373
17.4.3 Balconies and Walls
373
References
373
18 Solar Energy for Building Supply
376
Abstract
376
18.1 Introduction
376
18.2 PV Modules and Cells
377
18.2.1 Electricity Production
377
18.2.2 The Components
378
18.2.3 Dependency of Energy Generated on System Installation
380
18.2.4 Production
381
18.2.5 Integration of Solar Modules in Buildings
381
18.3 ?ypes of PV Cells
381
18.3.1 Types of PV Cells Depending on the Semiconductor Material
382
18.3.2 Types of PV Cells According to the Type of Junction
383
18.3.3 Types of PV Cells According to the Method of Manufacture
384
18.3.4 Types of PV Cells According to the Devices of the System that Utilizes Solar Radiation
384
18.3.5 Semitransparent Modules (Crystalline Glass-Glass Module)
385
18.4 I–V Curve and Losses
386
18.4.1 Characteristic I–V Curve of a PV Cell—Power Curve
386
18.5 Types of Building Integration
388
18.6 Conclusion
396
References
396
19 The State of the Art for Technologies Used to Decrease Demand in Buildings: Thermal Insulation
398
Abstract
398
19.1 Thermal Insulation Materials
398
19.2 Foamed Materials
399
19.3 Fibrous Materials
400
19.4 Construction Solutions
404
19.4.1 Vertical Building Elements
405
19.4.2 Horizontal Building Elements
407
19.5 Conclusions
413
Reference
413
20 Cool Materials
414
Abstract
414
20.1 Introduction
414
20.2 Construction Materials Under Solar Radiation
416
20.2.1 Construction and Building Solutions for Cool Applications
418
20.3 Cool Materials for Building Applications
420
20.3.1 White and Light-Colored Materials
420
20.3.2 Cool Colored Materials
421
20.3.3 Advanced Materials
423
20.4 Cool Materials for Urban Applications
424
20.5 Potentialities of Cool Materials Applications
426
20.5.1 Saving Energy with Cool Roofs
426
20.5.2 Mitigating the Urban Temperatures with Cool Materials
428
20.6 Cool Roofs Case Studies
429
20.6.1 Senior Recreation Building in Rome, Italy
429
20.6.2 OfficeSchool Building in Trapani, Sicily, Italy
430
20.6.3 School Building in Athens, Greece
432
20.6.4 School Building in Heraklion, Crete, Greece
432
Bibliography
433
21 Shading and Daylight Systems
436
Abstract
436
21.1 Introduction
436
21.2 Shading
444
21.3 Daylight Systems
449
21.3.1 Lightshelf
452
21.3.2 Blinds
453
21.3.3 Daylight Transporting Systems
459
21.3.4 Heliostat
462
References
464
22 The State of the Art for Technologies Used to Decrease Demand in Buildings: Electric Lighting
466
Abstract
466
22.1 Energy Consumption by Electric Lighting
466
22.2 Policies and Standards
468
22.3 Energy Performance Factors for Lighting Installations
469
22.4 Maintenance and Life Cycle
472
22.5 Comparison of Technologies
473
22.5.1 Lamps
473
22.5.1.1 LED Replacement Lamps
475
22.5.2 Luminaires
475
22.5.3 LED Luminaires
475
22.5.4 OLED Luminaires
476
22.6 Daylighting Utilization
477
22.7 Lighting Design
477
22.8 Conclusions
480
Reference
480
Part IV The Microclimatic Environment
481
23 Tools and Strategies for Microclimatic Analysis of the Built Environment
482
Abstract
482
23.1 Introduction
482
23.2 Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification
483
23.3 Orientation Analysis
485
23.4 Passive Design Strategies for Mediterranean Climate
486
23.5 Passive Design Strategies for Mediterranean Climate
488
23.6 Climograms—Case Study of Barcelona
489
23.7 Summary of Design Strategies for Mediterranean Cities
492
23.8 Passive Strategies for Winter
494
23.9 Conclusion
494
References
495
24 Microclimatic Improvement
496
Abstract
496
24.1 Introduction
497
24.2 Defining Microclimate
498
24.2.1 Properties of Mediterranean Climate
498
24.2.2 Meso-Scale Conditions
500
24.2.2.1 Topography
500
24.2.2.2 Wind
500
24.2.2.3 Bodies of Water
500
24.2.2.4 Vegetation
500
24.2.2.5 Artificial Elements
501
24.2.3 Main Physical Parameters on the Local Scale
501
24.3 Mediterranean Settlement and Microclimate
503
24.4 Strategies in Microclimatic Improvement
506
24.4.1 Building as Modifier of Microclimate (North America 1910–1948)
506
24.4.2 Sequences of Dampening Spaces (Andalusia 9th–14th Centuries)
508
24.4.3 Collaboration Between Construction and Microclimate (Corse 2011)
510
24.4.4 Social Spaces and Evapotranspiration (Castile 2004)
512
24.4.5 Blurring and Dematerialization (Southern France 1961 and 2003–2007)
513
24.5 Conclusions
517
References
518
25 Modelling and Bioclimatic Interventions in Outdoor Spaces
520
Abstract
520
25.1 Introduction
520
25.2 The Optimum Modelling Tool
522
25.3 Using Computational Fluid Dynamics in the Bioclimatic Design of Open Spaces in Two Greek Cities
523
25.3.1 Bioclimatic Thermal Problem
523
25.3.2 Bioclimatic Interventions
524
25.3.3 Model Verification
524
25.3.4 Comparison of the Mean Maximum Air Temperature
527
25.3.5 Comparison of the Mean Surface Temperatures
529
25.4 Urban Microclimatic Improvement Effects on Building Blocks’ Energy Consumption by the Use of Energy Simulation
531
25.5 The Optimum Modeling Scheme in Bioclimatic Design
533
25.6 Conclusions
534
References
535
Index
538