Obesity Prevention - The Role of Brain and Society on Individual Behavior

Front Cover

Obesity Prevention: The Role of Brain and Society on Individual Behavior

Copyright Page

Contents

List of contributors

Preface

Acknowledgments

Introduction: On the Brain-to-Society Model of Motivated Choice and the Whole-of-Society Approach to Obesity Prevention

Part 1. FROM BRAIN TO BEHAVIOR

A. Energy is Delight: Sensory and Reward Systems

Chapter 1 The Pleasures and Pains of Brain Regulatory Systems for Eating

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Satiety Agents versus Aversion-Inducing Agents

1.3 Various Methodologies to Evaluate Affective Change in Pre-Clinical Appetite Research

1.4 Conditioned Taste Aversions – From Animal Models to Human Brain Analysis?

1.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 2 The Neurobiology of Appetite: Hunger as Addiction

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Hunger as Addiction

2.3 Response to Conditioned Cues

2.4 Functional Brain Imaging of Cue Reactivity

2.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 3 Opioids: Culprits for Overconsumption of Palatable Foods?

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Opioids and Feeding Behavior in Rodent Models

3.3 Opioids and Dysregulation of Eating Patterns and Body Weight in Human Beings

3.4 Conclusions and Perspectives

References

Chapter 4 Taste, Olfactory and Food-texture Processing in the Brain and the Control of Appetite

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Taste-Processing in the Primate Brain

4.3 The Representation of Flavor: Convergence of Olfactory, Taste and Visual Inputs in the Orbitofrontal Cortex

4.4 The Texture of Food, Including Fat Texture

4.5 Imaging Studies in Humans

4.6 Cognitive Effects on Representations of Food

4.7 Synthesis

4.8 Implications for Understanding, Preventing, and Treating Obesity

4.9 Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 5 Cortical and Limbic Activation in Response to Low- and High-calorie Food

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Brain Responses to Food Stimuli in Healthy Adults

5.3 Modulating Factors

5.4 Cortical and Limbic Activation to Food Images During Adolescent Development

5.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 6 Reward-related Neuroadaptations Induced by Food Restriction: Pathogenic Potential of a Survival Mechanism

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Food Restriction may Augment Neurobiological Responses to Palatable Food in a Way that Promotes Addictive Behavior

6.3 Food Restriction Enhances CNS and Behavioral Responses to Drugs of Abuse and Dopamine Receptor Agonists

6.4 Food Restriction Up-regulates D1 Dopamine Receptor-Mediated Phosphorylation of Ionotropic Glutamate Receptors and Signaling Proteins that Underlie Synaptic Plasticity

6.5 Striatal Neuroadaptations Induced by Food Restriction may be Secondary to Changes in Pre-synaptic Dopamine Neuronal Function

6.6 A Schema to Consider as Research Continues

References

B. Executive Control Systems and the Challenges They Face in the Modern World of Plenty

Chapter 7 The Neuroeconomics of Food Selection and Purchase

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Positive Valuations

7.3 Influences on Positive Valuations

7.4 Negative Valuations

7.5 Influences on Negative Valuations

7.6 Selection

7.7 Habits

7.8 Conclusions

References

Chapter 8 Resisting Temptation: Impulse Control and Trade-offs between Immediate Rewards and Long-term Consequences

8.1 Introduction

8.2 A Neural System for Decision-Making and Will-power: The Somatic Marker Hypothesis

8.3 Empirical Evidence for Deficits of Decision-making Underlying Obesity

8.4 Conclusion

References

Chapter 9 Hunger, Satiety, and Food Preferences: Effects of the Brain and the Body on the Self-Control of Eating

9.1 Introduction

9.2 The Components of Self-control

9.3 Physiological Influences on Self-control

9.4 Promoting Self-control for a Healthy Body Weight

9.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 10 Associative Learning and the Control of Food Intake

10.1 A Behavioral Reporting of Eating

10.2 Eating is a Learned Behavior

10.3 Forms of Learned Ingestive Response

10.4 Sensory-specific Anticipatory Eating

10.5 Diurnal Rhythms and the Learned Response

10.6 Nutrients and Cognition

10.7 Dietary Fats and Learning

10.8 Our Primitive Brain

References

Chapter 11 Restrained Eating in a World of Plenty

11.1 Introduction

11.2 The Effects of Having Food Cues Present

11.3 Response to Food Cues in Restrained and Unrestrained Eaters

11.4 Food Photographs and/or Words – Indirect Food Cues

11.5 Portion Size as Food Cue

11.6 The Removal of Food Cues

11.7 Caloric Restriction in Animals and Humans

11.8 Is CR Likely to be Effective for Humans?

11.9 Caloric Restriction in the Presence of Food Cues

11.10 Dieting in a World of Food Cues

References

C. Biological Systems that Favor a Positive Energy Balance and Body-weight Increase in a World of Plenty

Chapter 12 The Genetic Determinants of Ingestive Behavior: Sensory, Energy Homeostasis and Food Reward Aspects of Ingestive Behavior

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Sensory Determinants of Food Intake

12.3 Energy Homeostasis Pathways and Food Intake

12.4 Reward Circuits and Food Intake

12.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 13 Development of Human Learned Flavor Likes and Dislikes

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Understanding Flavor Perception

13.3 Why Innate Flavor-liking is Rare

13.4 Flavor-preference Learning

13.5 Different Learning Mechanisms Interact to Enhance Flavor-liking

13.6 Liking and Intake: The Role of Palatability in Overeating

13.7 Acquired Liking as a Driver of Overeating

13.8 Individual Differences in Learning

13.9 Summary

References

Chapter 14 Biopsychological Factors and Body-weight Stability

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Is Knowledge-based Work a Potential Determinant of the Current Obesity Epidemic?

14.3 Is Short Sleep Duration a Potential Determinant of the Current Obesity Epidemic?

14.4 Weight Loss: Not Always Beneficial for the Psychological Health

14.5 Physical Activity and Diet: What is the Impact on Body-weight Stability?

14.6 Conclusion and Perspectives

References

Chapter 15 Nutrition, Epigenomics and the Development of Obesity: How the Genome Learns from Experience

15.1 The Basics of Epigenetics and Epigenomics

15.2 Epigenetic Marks During Development and Aging

15.3 Nutritional Epigenomics

15.4 Epigenetics and Brain Function

15.5 An Epigenetic Basis for Developmental Programming of Obesity?

15.6 Physical Activity, Epigenetic Markings and Obesity

15.7 Concluding Comments

References

Chapter 16 The Role of Early Life Experiences in Flavor Perception and Delight

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Flavor and the Ontogeny of the Senses

16.3 Taste and Development

16.4 Learning about Food Flavors

16.5 Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 17 Implications of the Glycemic Index in Obesity

17.1 Introduction

17.2 The concept of the Glycemic Index

17.3 Mechanisms of Action

17.4 Effects of low GI Foods on Appetite, Food Intake and Satiety

17.5 GI and Obesity

17.6 GI and Diabetes

17.7 GI and Cardiovascular Disease

17.8 Conclusion

References

Chapter 18 Characterizing the Homeostatic and Hedonic Markers of the Susceptible Phenotype

18.1 The Approach

18.2 Susceptible and Resistant Phenotypes

18.3 What Would a Susceptible Phenotype Look Like?

18.4 What Level of Analysis is Appropriate?

18.5 Appetite is Not Rocket Science – It is More Complicated

18.6 Diversity, Susceptibility and Homeostasis

18.7 Hedonics: The Importance of Liking and Wanting

18.8 Comparing Susceptible and Resistant Phenotypes

18.9 Resistance to Weight Loss – The Other Side of Susceptibility

18.10 Conclusions

References

Chapter 19 The Carnivore Connection: Cross-population Differences in the Prevalence of Genes Producing Insulin Resistance

19.1 Background

19.2 The Evolution of Insulin Resistance

19.3 Determinants of Insulin Resistance

19.4 Candidate Genes and Cross-population Genetic Differences

19.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 20 Neuroanatomical Correlates of Hunger and Satiaty in Lean and Obese Individuals

20.1 Physiology of Hunger and Satiety in Human Eating Behavior

20.2 Functional Neuroimaging Evidence

References

Chapter 21 Neuroendocrine Stress Response and Its Impact on Eating Behavior and Body Weight

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal Axis

21.3 Stress and Food Intake: It is Not all Homeostatic or Automatic

21.4 Imaging Studies in Humans

21.5 Peripheral Signals Regulating Energy Balance

21.6 Conclusion

References

D. Integrative and Multi-level Models of Eating and of Energy and Body-weight Regulation

Chapter 22 Eating Behavior and its Determinants: From Gene to Environment

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Genes

22.3 The Environment

22.4 Genes – Environment Interactions

22.5 A General Model of Intake Regulation

22.6 Discussion

References

Chapter 23 The Molecular Regulation of Body Weight: The Role of Leptin, Ghrelin and Hypocretin

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Leptin, Ghrelin and Hypocretin

23.3 Leptin Protein

23.4 Ghrelin Protein

23.5 Hypocretin Protein

23.6 Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 24 Energy Balance Regulation: Complex Interplay between the Autonomic and Cognitive/Limbic Brains to Control Food Intake and Thermogenesis

24.1 Introduction

24.2 The Regulation of Energy Balance

24.3 Brain Pathways Involved in the Control of Food Intake and Thermogenesis

24.4 Conclusion

References

E. Individual-level Interventions to Tap into Appropriate Brain Systems for Sustainable Behavioral Change

Chapter 25 Stealth Interventions for Obesity Prevention and Control: Motivating Behavior Change

25.1 Motivation for Behavior Change

25.2 Self-efficacy

25.3 Stealth Interventions

25.4 Social and Ideological Movements as Stealth Interventions to Change Health Behaviors

25.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 26 From Diets to Healthy and Pleasurable Everyday Eating

26.1 The Diet Zeitgest

26.2 A New Weight Paradigm

26.3 The New Paradigm's Contribution to Solving the Obesity Epidemic

References

Chapter 27 Resisting Temptations: How Food-Related Control Abilities can be Strengthened through Implementation Intentions

27.1 Introduction

27.2 The Motivational Nature of Food

27.3 Food-Related Control Abilities

References

Chapter 28 The Dieter's Dilemma: Identifying When and How to Control Consumption

28.1 Introduction

28.2 A Two-stage Model of Self-control: Identification versus Resolution

28.3 Conclusions

References

Chapter 29 Lifestyle Change and Maintenance in Obesity Treatment and Prevention: A Self-determination Theory Perspective

29.1 Introduction

29.2 Self-determination Theory

29.3 Self-regulation

29.4 Need-supportive Contexts

29.5 SDT and Weight Loss

29.6 Potentional Limitations of Current Interventions: An SDT Perspective

29.7 Directions for Future Research Based on SDT

References

Chapter 30 Nutritional Genomics in Obesity Prevention and Treatment

30.1 Background

30.2 The Genetics of Obesity

30.3 Nutritional Genomics

30.4 The Role of Gene Polymorphisms

30.5 The Role of Gene Expression

30.6 From Bench to Bedside: Predicting Outcome

30.7 Outlook

References

Chapter 31 Physical Activity for Obese Children and Adults

31.1 Introduction

31.2 Adults and Physical Activity

31.3 Physical Activity and Young People

31.4 Linking Physical Activity and Obesity

31.5 The Model

31.6 Fit or Fat

31.7 Conclusion

References

Part 2. FROM SOCIETY TO BEHAVIOR: POLICY AND ACTION

A. Economy as a Core Society System Shaping Policy and Action that Determine Behavior

Chapter 32 Economic Growth as a Path Toward Poverty Reduction, Better Nutrition and Sustainable Population Growth

32.1 Introduction and a Definition of Terms

32.2 What is Needed to Accelerate and Sustain Growth?

32.3 Country Case Study: China and India

32.4 The Case of Undernutrition and Obesity

References

Chapter 33 The Human Agent, Behavioral Changes and Policy Implications

33.1 The Economic and Psychological View of Human Nature

33.2 Culture as an Economic Externality

33.3 A Psychologist's Explanation of Behavior

33.4 Happiness, or the Power of Human Adaptability

33.5 An Argument for Some Paternalism

References

Chapter 34 The Four Pillars of the Industrial Machine: Can the Wheels be Steered in a Healthier Direction?

34.1 Introduction

34.2 Malthus' World

34.3 How Nations Become Wealthy

34.4 The Progress of Economic Development

34.5 Measuring Economic Development

34.6 The 2 Percent Productivity Cruise Control

34.7 The Obesity Connection

34.8 The Way Forward

References

Chapter 35 Libertarian Paternalism: Nudging Individuals toward Obesity Prevention

35.1 Introduction

35.2 Biases and Shortcomings in Human Decision-making

35.3 On Libertarian Paternalism

35.4 Libertarian Paternalism Applied

35.5 Limitations and Conclusion

References

B. Needs and Challenges in Policy and Action to Prevent Obesity

Chapter 36 The Current State of the Obesity Pandemic: How We Got Here and Where We Are Going

36.1 The Current State of the Obesity Pandemic

36.2 How did We Get Here?

36.3 The Complexity of the Problem

References

Chapter 37 The Underweight/Overweight Paradox in Developing Societies: Causes and Policy Implications

37.1 Introduction

37.2 The Reasons Underlying the Underweight/Overweight "Paradox"

37.3 Public Policies Needed to Tackle the Coexistence of Underweight/Overweight

37.4 Applying the WHO Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health

37.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 38 The Drivers of Body Weight, Shape and Health: An Indian Perspective of Domestic and International Influences

38.1 Introduction

38.2 Overweight and Obesity in Indian Children and Youth

38.3 Trends Influencing Intake

38.4 Trends in Energy Expenditure

38.5 Cross-cutting Issues

38.6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 39 Diets and Activity Levels of Paleolithic versus Modern Humans: Societal Implications for the Modern Overweight Pandemic

39.1 Introduction

39.2 The Four Eras of Change of Human Diets

39.3 Contrasting Food Intake during the Paleolithic Era versus Today

39.4 Energy Expenditure and Physical Inactivity

39.5 The Tipping Point of Energy Imbalance

39.6 Insights from Paleolithic Diets to Fight the Obesity Pandemic

References

C. Policy and Action to Shift the Drivers of Food Supply and Demand of the Agriculture and Agri-Food Value Chains in a Healthy Direction

Chapter 40 Agriculture, Food and Health

40.1 Introduction and Context

40.2 Food Consumption and Nutrition Situation

40.3 Agriculture–Nutrition Linkages

40.4 Analysis of South Asian Dietary Energy Supply and Nutrition Status

40.5 Dietary Transition in Asian Countries

40.6 The Impact of Urbanization

40.7 Overweight and Obesity in Asia

40.8 Policy Interventions

40.9 Conclusion and Recommendations

References

Chapter 41 Changing Food Systems in the Developing World

41.1 Introduction

41.2 Factors Driving Changes in Food Demand

41.3 Factors Driving Changes in Food Supply

41.4 Impact of Changes in Food Supply and Demand

41.5 The Key Role of Institutions and Research

References

Chapter 42 Green Revolution 2.5: From Crisis to a New Convergence Between Agriculture, Agri-Food and Health for Healthy Eating Worldwide

42.1 Introduction

42.2 Novel and Convergent Solutions for Agriculture, Agri-Food and Health

42.3 An Integrated Approach to the Food and Nutrition Value Chain

42.4 Challenges and Opportunities in Developing Green Revolution 2.5

42.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 43 How High-level Consumer Research Can Create Low-caloric, Pleasurable Food Concepts, Products and Packages

43.1 Introduction

43.2 Where did this Systematic, RDE Approach Come From?

43.3 Designing the Product and Communicating It

References

Chapter 44 Reductions in Dietary Energy Density to Moderate Children's Energy Intake

44.1 Introduction

44.2 What is Energy Density?

44.3 Why is Energy Density Important?

44.4 Does Energy Density Influence Energy Intake?

44.5 Practical Strategies to Reduce Energy Density

44.6 Will Reducing the Energy Density of the Diet Benefit Every Child?

44.7 Future Directions in Energy Density Research

44.8 Conclusions

References

Chapter 45 Nurturing and Preserving the Sensory Qualities of Nature

45.1 Introduction

45.2 Determinants of Individual Food Choices and Current "Healthful Eating" Trends

45.3 Preserving the Natural Sensory Qualities of Food

References

Chapter 46 Aligning Pleasures and Profits: Restaurants as Healthier Lifestyle Enablers

46.1 Introduction

46.2 Industry Overview

46.3 Food-Away-From-Home Demand Drivers

46.4 How Restaurants Compete

46.5 Ways Forward

46.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 47 A Study of Corporate Social Responsibility Activities of 12 Giant Food Companies (1980–2008) in Promoting Healthy Food

47.1 Introduction

47.2 Literature Review

47.3 Data, Sample and Methodology

47.4 Results and Sensitivity Analysis

47.5 Conclusion

Appendix A

Appendix B

Appendix C

References

D. Policy and Action for Creating Families, Schools, Communities and Social Networks that Support Individual Healthy Choice

Chapter 48 The Injunctive and Descriptive Norms Governing Eating

48.1 Introduction

48.2 Injunctive versus Descriptive Eating Norms

48.3 Norms are Situational

48.4 Socialization and the Creation of Eating Norms

48.5 Norm Violations

48.6 The Effect of Eating Norms on Health Outcomes

48.7 Affecting Norms through Marketing

48.8 Conclusion

References

Chapter 49 Family Meal Patterns and Eating in Children and Adolescents

49.1 Introduction

49.2 Do Family Meals Promote Good Nutrition?

49.3 Do Family Meals Promote Healthy Weights?

49.4 Do Family Meals Promote Health in Overweight Children?

49.5 Do Family Meals have Other Benefits?

49.6 What are Strategies to Promote Family Meals?

49.7 What Actions can Communities Take to Promote Family Meals?

49.8 What Remains to be Learned about Family Meals?

References

Chapter 50 Social Influences on Eating in Children and Adults

50.1 Introduction

50.2 Social Influences on the Control of Intake in Adults

50.3 Social Influence on Food Selection in Adults

50.4 Social Influences on the Control of Intake in Children

50.5 Social Influences on Food Selection in Children

50.6 Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 51 Church- and Other Community Interventions to Promote Healthy Lifestyles: Tailoring to Ethnicity and Culture

51.1 Introduction

51.2 Background

51.3 Cultural Targeting and Tailoring in Community Settings

51.4 Religious Organizations as Communities within Communities

51.5 Challenges

51.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 52 On Gluttony: Religious and Philosophical Responses to the Obesity Epidemic

52.1 Introduction

52.2 What is Gluttony?

52.3 What is Wrong with Gluttony?

52.4 Conclusions

References

Chapter 53 Social Alliances: Moving Beyond Corporate Social Responsibility to Private–Public Partnerships

53.1 Introduction

53.2 Partnership in Social Alliances

53.3 Social Alliances as a Strategy for Corporate Branding

53.4 Societal Interventions as Strategic Alliances

53.5 The Case Study Intervention

53.6 Discussion of the Case Study

53.7 Conclusion

References

Chapter 54 Social Networks, Social Capital, and Obesity: A Literature Review

54.1 Definition of Terms

54.2 Methodology

54.3 Two Debates

54.4 Social Capital and Obesity Literature

54.5 Final Considerations

References

Chapter 55 From Society to Behavior: Neighborhood Environment Influences

55.1 Introduction

55.2 Identification of Neighborhoods

55.3 Neighborhood Boundary Definition

55.4 Identification and Assessment of Neighborhood Environment Characteristics

55.5 Findings and Limitations

55.6 Conclusions and Implications

References

E. Challenges and Possibilities for Policy and Action in Reducing the Social and Economic Gradients in Health, Lifestyle and Obesity

Chapter 56 Social Determinants of Health and Obesity

56.1 Introduction

56.2 The Social Gradient of Health

56.3 Obesity and the Social Gradient of Health

56.4 The Burden of Disease

56.5 The WHO Commission on the Social Determinants of Health and a Possible Explanatory Framework

56.6 Applying the Framework to Policy

56.7 Targeted and Universal Policies

56.8 Conclusion

References

Chapter 57 The Role of the Environment in Socio-Economic Status and Obesity

57.1 Introduction

57.2 Food Consumption

57.3 Physical Activity

57.4 Summary and Conclusions

References

Chapter 58 The Economics of Obesity: Why are Poor People Fat?

58.1 Introduction

58.2 How do People Make Food Choices?

58.3 Energy-dense Foods Cost Less

58.4 Healthier Diets Cost More

58.5 The Growing Price Disparity in Food Costs

58.6 Does Restricting Food Costs Lead to Energy-dense Diets?

58.7 Why are Poor People Fat?

58.8 Approaches to Obesity Prevention

References

F. Challenges and Possibilities for a Broad Systems Approach to Policy and Action

Chapter 59 Challenges in Making Broad Healthy Lifestyle Plans: Revisiting the Nature of Health Interventions

59.1 The Context of Non-communicable Diseases

59.2 The Current Health Policy Framework

59.3 The Need for Joined-up Policy-making

59.4 The WHO Global Strategy for Diet, Physical Activity and Health

59.5 Improving the Global Policy Framework

59.6 Insights from Tobacco Control Efforts

59.7 Engaging the Private Sector

59.8 Conclusions

References

Chapter 60 Social Interactions and Obesity: An Economist's Perspective

60.1 Introduction

60.2 The Different Guises of Social Interactions

60.3 The Literature so Far

60.4 Policy Interventions Related to Social Interactions

60.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 61 A Complex Systems Approach to Understanding and Combating the Obesity Epidemic

61.1 Introduction

61.2 Challenges for Study and Intervention Design

61.3 Complex Adaptive Systems

61.4 Applying a Complex Systems View to Obesity

61.5 Agent-based Computational Modeling

61.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 62 Conclusion: A Whole-of-Society Approach to Obesity Prevention: New Frontiers in Science, Policy and Action, and the Emerging Models of Capitalism and Society to Make it Possible

62.1 Introduction

62.2 New Frontiers in Science

62.3 New Frontiers in Policy

62.4 New Frontiers in Action

62.5 Emerging Models of Capitalism and Society

References

Index

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