Staying Maasai? - Livelihoods, Conservation and Development in East African Rangelands

Foreword

Acknowledgements

Contents

Contributors

Chapter 1

Changing Land Use, Livelihoods and Wildlife Conservation in Maasailand

1.1 Introduction

1.2 The setting

1.2.1 Policy and Institutional Context of Land Use and Livelihood Change

1.2.1.1 Land Tenure

1.2.1.2 Agriculture and Livestock

1.2.1.3 Wildlife and Conservation Policy

1.2.1.4 Institutional Context of Maasai Diversification and Land Use Change

1.2.2 Changing Land Use and Livelihoods in Maasailand

1.2.3 Wildlife Conservation as a Dimension of Pastoralist Development

1.3 A conceptual framework

1.3.1 The Approach

1.3.1.1 Modeling Land Use Decisions in Maasailand

1.3.2 Theoretical Background

1.3.2.1 Development

1.3.2.2 Political Ecology

1.3.2.3 Ecological Economics and Community Conservation

1.3.2.4 Livelihoods and Diversification

Analyzing Livelihoods

Land Tenure

Labour

Capital

1.3.2.5 Diversification and Intensification

1.3.2.6 Triggers and Drivers of Change

1.4 Structure and Sequence of this Volume

References

Chapter 2

Methods in the Analysis of Maasai Livelihoods

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Design and Implementation of Field Surveys

2.2.1 Household Sampling Strategies

2.2.1.1 Definition of ‘Household'

2.2.1.2 Villages and Group Ranches

2.2.1.3 Sample Selection

2.2.2 Characterizing the Biophysical and Socio-Demographic Environment

2.2.2.1 Spatial Variables

2.2.2.2 Household-Level Variables

2.2.3 Family Portraits

2.2.4 Institutional and Policy Analyses

2.2.5 Participatory- and Action- Research

2.3 Characterizing Livelihood Strategies

2.3.1 Identifying Groups of Pastoralists with Similar Livelihood Strategies

2.3.2 Variables Representing Livelihood Strategies of Maasai Pastoralists

2.4 Household Choice of Livelihood Strategy

2.5 Factors Influencing Income and Wealth Levels

2.6 Discussion

2.6.1 Sustainable Livelihoods Framework

2.6.2 Evaluating Community-Based Conservation

2.6.3 Potential for Statistical and Simulation Modelling

References

Part I: Family Portraits - Mara

Chapter 3

Maasai Mara - Land Privatization and Wildlife Declinc: Can Conservation Pay Its Way?

3.1 Introduction

3.1.1 The Setting

3.1.2 Historical Changes in Policy and Land Cover

3.1.3 Study Sites

3.2 The study

3.2.1 Methods

3.2.1.1 Data Collection

3.2.1.2 Clustering of 2004 Households to Define Livelihood Strategies

3.2.1.3 Regression Analysis of Household Net Income Against Explanatory Variables

3.3 Livelihood Strategies in the Mara in 2004

3.3.1 Factors Influencing Gross Household Income

3.4 Trends in Mara Livelihoods, 1998–2004

3.4.1 Land Allocation

3.4.2 Socio-Demographic Characteristics

3.4.3 Livelihoods

3.4.3.1 Pastoralism

3.4.3.2 Small-Scale Cultivation

3.4.3.3 Land Leasing and Wheat Cultivation

3.5 Conservation Dividends, Rents and Politics: Wildlife Associations and Conservancies

3.6 Discussion

3.6.1 Livestock

3.6.2 Wildlife

3.6.3 Off-Land Employment

3.6.4 Cultivation

3.6.5 Land Tenure, Land Use, Income and Livelihoods

3.7 Conclusion

References

Chapter 4

Assessing Returns to Land and Changing Livelihood Strategies in Kitengela

4.1 Introduction

4.2 The Study – objectives, approach and methods&rsquo

4.2.1 Objectives

4.2.2 Study Sites

4.2.3 Approach and Methods

4.2.3.1 Selection of Households and Data

4.2.3.2 Analytical Methods

Cluster Analysis

Regression Analysis

4.3 Livelihood strategies, land ownership and determinants of wealth in Kitengela

4.3.1 Household Characteristics

4.3.2 Returns to Different Livelihood Options

4.3.2.1 Livestock Returns

4.3.2.2 Livestock Input Costs

4.3.2.3 Cropping Returns

4.3.2.4 Returns to Off-Land and Wildlife Conservation-Related Activities

4.3.3 Land Ownership and Distribution

4.3.4 Livelihood Strategies

4.3.4.1 Land and Livelihoods

4.3.5 Determinants of Household Income

4.3.5.1 Determinants of Overall Income

4.3.5.2 Determinants of Livestock Income

4.3.5.3 Determinants of Off-Land, Crop and Wildlife Conservation Income

4.3.5.4 Determinants of Livestock Wealth

4.4 Conclusions

References

Part II: Family Portraits - Amboseli

Chapter 5

Pathways of Continuity and Change: Maasai Livelihoods in Amboseli, Kajiado District, Kenya

5.1 Introduction

5.1.1 Study Site Description

5.1.2 Critical History in the Greater Amboseli Ecosystem

5.1.3 Methodology

5.2 Amboseli Livelihoods

5.2.1 Study Area Analyses

5.2.1.1 Livestock Production

5.2.1.2 Agriculture

5.2.1.3 Off-Land Activities

5.2.2 Cluster Analyses

5.2.2.1 Gross Returns from Activities Across Household Clusters

5.2.2.2 What Proportional Contribution do Activities Make to Gross Household Incomes?

5.2.2.3 Returns from Off-land Activities

5.2.2.4 Returns from Wildlife

5.2.2.5 Demographic Characteristics Across Household Clusters

5.2.2.6 Cluster Membership and Study Areas

5.3 Predicting Livelihood Strategies and Household Well-Being

5.3.1 Modelling Cluster Membership

5.3.2 Predictors of Economic Well-being in Amboseli

5.3.2.1 Predicting Gross Income

5.3.2.2 Predicting Livestock Holdings

5.4 System Trends

5.4.1 Livestock Intensification

5.4.2 Diversification Pathways Through Time

5.5 Maasai Livelihoods: Current and Future

References

Part III: Family Portraits - Longido

Chapter 6

Still “People of Cattle”? Livelihoods, Diversification and Community Conservation in Longido District

6.1 Introduction

6.1.1 Land Tenure Policies

6.1.2 Wildlife Trends and Conservation Policies

6.1.3 Land Use and Livelihoods

6.2 Study Sites, Methodology and Analysis

6.2.1 Study Sites

6.2.2 Study Schedule, Data Collection and Analysis

6.3 Longido Maasai Livelihoods

6.3.1 Pastoralism and Livestock Production

6.3.2 Agriculture

6.3.3 Off-Farm Income and Remittances

6.3.4 Income from Wildlife/Conservation-Related Sources

6.4 Categorizing Livelihoods Strategies in Longido

6.4.1 Household Demography and Livelihood Strategies

6.4.2 Qualifying Diversification

6.5 Determinants of Livelihood Strategies

6.6 Determinants of wealth

6.6.1 Note on Method of Analysis

6.6.2 Factors Influencing Income and Livestock wealth

6.7 Costs and Benefits of Wildlife in Longido Livelihoods

6.8 Discussion

References

Part IV: Family Portraits - Tarangire

Chapter 7

Cattle and Crops, Tourism and Tanzanite: Poverty, Land-Use Change and Conservation in Simanjiro District, Tanzania

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Setting and Research Approach

7.3 Livelihood Strategies on the Simanjiro Plains

7.3.1 Livestock Production and Pastoralism

7.3.2 Farming and Land-Use Change

7.3.2.1 Agricultural Expansion and Land Allocation

7.3.2.2 Agricultural Production and Household Economics

7.3.3 Off-Farm Income

7.3.4 The Relative Importance of Different Income Sources

7.3.5 Investment in Livelihoods

7.4 Community-Based Conservation in Simanjiro

7.4.1 Background to Wildlife Conservation in Tarangire and Simanjiro

7.4.2 Conflicts Past and Present

7.4.3 Benefiting from Wildlife – A Village-Level Analysis

7.4.4 Perceptions: Beyond Economics

7.5 Tanzanite and Land-Use Change in the Simanjiro Plains

7.5.1 Tanzanite and Tenure – A New Resource, Familiar Patterns

7.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 8

Community-Based Conservation and Maasai Livelihoods in Tanzania

8.1 Introduction

8.1.1 Community Wildlife Management and Rural Development

8.2 Rural Communities and Wildlife Conservation in Tanzania: A Brief History

8.2.1 The Colonial Period: Nature, Governance and Economic Control

8.2.2 The Post-Independence Period: Ujamaa, Crisis and Re-appraisal

8.3 The case studies

8.3.1 The Ruaha: Farmer–Herder Relations, CWM, and Rangeland Exclusion

8.3.1.1 Background: Wildlife Conservation, Ujamaa and Farmer-Herder Land-use Change in the Ruaha

8.3.1.2 The Development of CWM in the Ruaha

8.3.1.3 Conclusion: Compressed Landscapes, Marginalization and a Lost Future

8.3.2 The Ilparakuyo in Morogoro District

8.3.3 Village-based CWM as an Alternative to WMAs in Loliondo

8.3.3.1 Joint Ventures: Tourism Revenue and Conservation

8.3.3.2 Hunting Interests, Land Reform, and Evidence of Property

8.3.3.3 WMAs: Whose Wildlife, Whose Land?

8.3.3.4 Conservation and Maasai Livelihoods in Loliondo

8.4 Wildlife Conservation and Maasai Livelihoods

8.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 9

Policy and Practice in Kenya Rangelands: Impacts on Livelihoods and Wildlife

9.1 Introduction

9.2 The Policy Framework in Kenya

9.2.1 Land Tenure Policy

9.2.2 Agriculture and Livestock Policies

9.2.2.1 Impact of Agricultural and Livestock Policies on Pastoral Development Indices

9.2.3 Wildlife and Conservation Policy to Date

9.2.3.1 Wildlife Conservation Outcomes and New Policy Directions

9.3 Policies and Outcomes: Why the Gap?

9.3.1 Wildlife Revenue Sharing

9.3.2 Livestock Versus Agriculture: Simulation Models to Evaluate Land use Change in the Kenyan Rangelands

9.4 Policy/Practice Distortions: Powerful Players, ‘Participation’ and ‘Partnership&rsquo

9.5 Summary and Conclusion

References

Chapter 10

Staying Maasai? Pastoral Livelihoods, Diversification and the Role of Wildlife in Development

10.1 Introduction

10.1.1 Summary of Approach

10.2 Staying Maasai? Livestock, Cultivation and Non-farm work in Contemporary Rangeland Livelihoods

10.2.1 Livestock

10.2.2 Cultivation

10.2.3 Non-farm Activities

10.2.4 Diversification and Wealth

10.2.4.1 Factors Influencing Livelihood Wealth or Poverty Outcomes in Maasailand

10.2.4.2 Poverty, Development and Diversification in Maasai Rangelands

10.2.4.3 Poverty Datum Lines and Thresholds

10.2.4.4 Qualifying Diversification

10.3 Tourism and Wildlife in Maasailand

10.3.1 Livelihoods Studies in the Evaluation of Conservation Impacts

10.3.2 Power and Politics of Wildlife Tourism: Distribution of Wildlife Returns and Governance

10.3.3 Value of Maasai Pastoralist Production

10.4 So What? Lessons for Policy

References

Index