Organizations - Social Systems Conducting Experiments

Dedication

Acknowledgments

Contents

Chapter 1: Introducing Organizations as Social Systems Conducting Experiments

Introduction

Making Sense of Organizations: From ``Phenomena´´ to ``Key Features´´

Situation 1: Strategy Formulation

Situation 2: A Worker in Trouble

The First ``Arche´´: The Experimental Character of Organizations

The Second ``Arche´´: The Social Systemic Character of Organizations

The Relation Between the Social Systemic and the Experimental Character of Organizations

Organizations as Social Systems Conducting Experiments

Conducting Experiments

What is at Stake in the Experiment: Maintaining a Separate and Meaningful Existence

Conducting the Experiment: Adaptation and Realization for Meaningful Survival

The Experimental Character of Adaptation and Realization for Survival

Organizations as Social Systems

Principles Improving Organizational Design

Functional Design Principles

Specific Design Principles

Conceptual Background

Outline of the Book

Part I: Organizations as Social Systems Conducting Experiments with their Survival

Part II: Designing Organizations as Social Systems Conducting Experiments

Part III: Poor and Rich Survival

References

Chapter 2: The Experimental Arche: Ashby´s Cybernetics

Introduction

Cybernetics: Effective Methods for the Study of Complex Systems

Describing Behavior: ``Systems´´ and ``Transformations´´

Regular Behavior and Input

A procedure to Describe Behavior and Identify Regularity

Step 1. Select a Purpose

Step 2. Define the System, the Parameters, and the Measurement Interval

Step 3. Record the Behavior of the Black Box in Terms of Input and Output

Step 4: Construct a Conditional Transformation

Step 5. Establish Regularities in the Behavior of the Black Box (and Iterate)

Cybernetics: Effective Methods for the Control of Complex Systems

Ashby´s Views on Regulation: Definition, Types of Regulation and Requisite Variety

Regulation: Ashby´s Definition

Types of Regulation

Effective Regulation: The Law of Requisite Variety

Control, Design and Operational Regulation

Control

Design

A Method to Deal with Complex Systems

Step 1: Control

Step 2: Design

Step 3: Regulation

An Illustration of Ashby´s Method: Problem-Solving as a Series of ``Control,´´ ``Design´´ and &ldquo

Ashby´s Method Underlies Regulation in and of Organizations

Adaptive Behavior

Adaptation and Self-Regulation

Organizations as Adaptive Self-Regulatory Systems

Organizations as Systems Conducting Experiments

References

Chapter 3: The Experimental Arche Continued: Von Foerster on Observing Systems

Introduction

Two problems in first-order cybernetics

The problem of selection

The problem of defining the transformation

Dealing with Both Problems: The Cybernetics of Observing

Observers as Closed Systems Producing Eigenvalues

Closed Systems and Their Eigenvalues

A Formalism to Explain the Emergence of Eigenvalues

Three necessary elaborations of the basic formalism

The diversity of eigenvalues

The role of input

Eigenvalues and the complexity of systems producing them

Closure, cognition and observing

Closure of the nervous-system

The emergence of cognitive content

Problems of First-order Cybernetics Revisited

The Hypothetical Nature of Knowledge

Von Foerster and the Risky Nature of the Organizational Experiment

A Common Sense Understanding of Risk

A More Fundamental Understanding of Risk

Two Consequences of von Foerster´s View on Risk

Reification and Reduction

Responsibility

References

Chapter 4: The Second ``arche,´´ Organizations as Social Systems: Luhmann

Introduction

Luhmann´s General Theory of Social Systems

Autopoietic or Self-Producing Systems

Elements and the Production of Autopoietic Systems

Structures Regulating Autopoietic Production

Emergent Characteristics of Autopoietic Systems

Meaning Processing Systems

Two Key Properties of the Elements of Meaning Processing Systems

The Inner Structure of the Elements of Meaning Processing Systems: Meaning

The ``event-like´´ Character of the Elements of Meaning Processing Systems

The Structure and Self-Production of Meaning Processing Systems

Social Systems

Elements of Social Systems: Communications, their Inner Structure

The Structure of Social System: Expectations about Expectations

The Autopoietic Production of Social Systems

The Social ``arche´´: Organizations as a Particular type of Social Systems

Elements of Organizations: Decisions

The Organization´s Structure: Decision Premises

The Main Function of Decision Premises

Types of Decision Premises

Membership

Communication Pathways

Decision Programs

Personnel

Position

Planning

Self-descriptions

Organizational culture

Cognitive routines

Some Remarks on the Function and Types of Decision Premises

Processes of Self-Production: The Autopoiesis of Organizations

Questions Concerning Luhmann´s Theory of Organizations

Question 1

Question 2

Question 3

Organizations as social systems reflecting complexity

References

Chapter 5: Epilogue to Part I: The Two ``Archai´´ Combined

Introduction

Cybernetics and Social Systems Theory; an Exploratory Comparison

The Goal and Core Concepts of Respectively Cybernetics and Social Systems Theory

General Theory of Social Systems (Luhmann 1984)

Specific Theory of Organizations

Cybernetics and Social Systems Theory Compared

Combining the Experimental and the Social ``Arche´´

Transition to Part II: Designing organizations

References

Chapter 6: Beer: Functional Design Principles for Viable Infrastructures

Introduction

Viability and Complexity

Complexity Relations Between Environment, Organization, and Its Management

Three Strategies to Solve the Complexity Problem

Strategy 1: Define Goals

Strategy 2: Attenuate Disturbances and Amplify Regulatory Potential

Strategy 3: Recursion

Criterion 1

A functional Model of Viability

What Does it Mean to Make a Functional Model of a Viable System?

Beer´s Functional Model of Viable Organizations

Function One: Primary Activities

Function Two: Coordination

Function Three: Control

Function Four: Intelligence

Function Five: Policy

Relations Between Functions

Relations Between Functions Required to Realize the Organization´s Mission and Goals

Direct Commands and Reports and Resource Bargaining Between Control and the Primary Activities

Audits of the Primary Activities

Controlling the Coordination Function (Control - Coordination)

Coordinating Interdependencies Between Primary Activities (Coordination - Primary Activities)

Relations Between Functions Required to Adapt the Organization´s Identity and Mission

Consolidating Plans for Innovation (Policy - Intelligence - Control)

Generating Finalized Proposals for Innovation (Intelligence - Control)

Facilitating Communication Between Control And Intelligence (Policy - Intelligence - Control)

Diagnosing and Designing Viable Infrastructures

The Viable System Model and Social Systems Conducting Experiments

Example 1

Example 2

References

Chapter 7: Specific Design Principles: de Sitter´s Organizational Structures

Introduction

Designing Organizational Structures: Aiming at Attenuation and Amplification

Organizational Structures

Tasks in Organizations I: Defining Tasks

Tasks in Organizations II: Operational and Regulatory Transformations

The Operational and Regulatory Aspect of Transformations

Four types of Regulatory Transformations

Relating Tasks into Organizational Structures

Relevant Organizational Variables

Disturbances

Attenuation and Amplification by Organizational Structures

Principles for Designing Organizational Structures

Design Parameters

Using Design parameters to Formulate Design Principles

The Effect of an Organizational Structure with Maximum Parameter Values on Controllability

The Effect of High Parameter Values of the Production Structure

The Effect of High Parameter Values of the Control Structure

The Effect of High Working Pressure and Reduced Regulatory Potential on Realizing Tasks and on Organizational Quality

Quality of Organization

Quality of Work

Quality of working Relations

The Effect of an Organizational Structure with Minimum Parameter Values on Controllability

The Effect of Low Parameter Values of the Production Structure

The Effect of Low Parameter Values of the Control Structure

The Effect of Low Working Pressure and Increased Regulatory Potential on Realizing Tasks and on Organizational Quality

Quality of Organization

Quality of Work

Quality of Working Relations

Limits to Lowering Parameter-values

De Sitter´s Organizational Structures and Conducting Experiments

Relating de Sitter to Ashby, Luhmann and Beer

How Do Low Parameter Structures Benefit Organizational Experimentation?

References

Chapter 8: Epilogue to Part II: functional and specific design principles

Introduction

Summary of the Design Principles

Functional Design Principles

Specific Design Principles

The Status of the Design Principles

Principles of Experiments with Meaningful Survival

Design Principles Figuring in Experiments with Meaningful Survival

Transition to Part III: Poor and Rich Survival

Chapter 9: Poor Survival: Disciplining Organizational Behavior

Introduction

Foucault: The Disciplines in the Eighteenth Century

The Analysis of Space

The Analysis of Bodily Operations

The Analysis of the Process of Production

The Synthesis of Space, Bodily Operations and the Process of Productions

Hierarchical Surveillance

Normalizing Sanctions

Examination

A Cybernetic and Social Systemic Generalization of the Disciplines

Cybernetic Analysis of the Disciplines

Social Systemic Analysis of the Disciplines

Cybernetic and Social Systemic Principles Underpinning Discipline in Organizations

Why are the Disciplines Disquieting?

Trivialization

Self-Trivialization

Fear as a Prime Motivational Factor

A Science of Discipline

Detachment and Lack of Involvement

Contingent and Minimal Goals

References

Chapter 10: Towards Rich Survival: Aristotle

Introduction

The Highest Good for Man: Basic Distinctions

The Highest Good for Man: Living a Fulfilled Life

Characteristically Human Capacities and the Fulfilled Life

Virtues Involved in Eudaimonia

Eupraxia: Moral Virtue, Practical Wisdom, and Choice

Moral Virtue

Practical Wisdom

Making and Acting

Skill and Practical Wisdom

Skill: Knowledge and Experience

Skill: Deliberation and Judgment

Practical Wisdom

Practical Wisdom: Knowledge and Experience

Practical Wisdom: Deliberation and Judgment

Comparing Skill and Practical Wisdom

Choice: Combining Moral Virtue and Practical Wisdom

Developing Moral Virtue and Practical Wisdom

Aristotle Versus the Disciplines

References

Chapter 11: Organizational Structures Supporting Rich Survival

Introduction

Incorporating the Organization into Society

Rich Survival: Specific Design Principles and Corresponding Structures

Requirements to and Design Principles for ``Rich´´ Organizational Structures

Responsible Organizations: Requirements

Responsible Organizations: Design Principles

Design Principle 1

Design Principle 2

Design Principle 3

Responsible Organizational Members: Inclusive Jobs

Design Principle 4

Design Principle 5

Design Principle 6

Inclusive Versus Discipline-Like Jobs

Production and Control Structures Fitting the Design Principles

``Rich´´ Production Structures

Group 2: Rich Control Structures

Organizations and Rich Meaningful Survival

References

Chapter 12: Epilogue

Introduction

Organizations, ``Archai,´´ Design Principles, and ``Rich´´ Survival

Rich Survival: Its Applicability to Organizations and Relation to Poor Survival

Things to do

References