Particles and Astrophysics - A Multi-Messenger Approach

Preface

Contents

1 An Overview of Astroparticle Physics

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 Astrophysics and Astroparticle Physics

1.1.2 Discoveries and Experiments Not Covered in This Book

1.2 Cosmic Rays

1.3 Gamma-Rays of GeV and TeV Energies

1.4 Neutrino Astrophysics

1.5 The Dark Universe

1.6 Laboratories and Detectors for Astroparticle Physics

1.6.1 Space Experiments

1.6.2 Experiments in the Atmosphere

1.6.3 Ground-Based Experiments

1.7 Underground Laboratories for Rare Events

References

2 The Cosmic Rays and Our Galaxy

2.1 The Discovery of Cosmic Rays

2.2 Cosmic Rays and the Early Days of Particle Physics

2.3 The Discovery of the Positron and Particle Detectors

2.3.1 The Motion in a Magnetic Field and the Particle Rigidity

2.3.2 The Identification of the Positron

2.4 A Toy Telescope for Primary Cosmic Rays

2.5 Differential and Integral Flux

2.6 The Energy Spectrum of Primary Cosmic Rays

2.7 The Physical Properties of the Galaxy

2.7.1 The Galactic Magnetic Field

2.7.2 The Interstellar Matter Distribution

2.8 Low-Energy Cosmic Rays from the Sun

2.9 The Effect of the Geomagnetic Field

2.10 Number and Energy Density of the Cosmic Rays

2.11 Energy Considerations on Cosmic Ray Sources

References

3 Direct Cosmic Rays Detection: Protons, Nuclei, Electrons and Antimatter

3.1 Generalities on Direct Measurements

3.2 The Calorimetric Technique

3.2.1 Hadronic Interaction Length and Mean Free Path

3.2.2 The Electromagnetic Radiation Length

3.2.3 Hadronic Interaction Length and Mean Free Path in the Atmosphere

3.3 Balloon Experiments

3.4 Satellite Experiments

3.4.1 The IMP Experiments

3.4.2 The PAMELA Experiment

3.5 The AMS-02 Experiment on the International Space Station

3.6 Abundances of Elements in the Solar System and in CRs

3.6.1 Cosmic Abundances of Elements

3.7 Energy Spectrum of CR Protons and Nuclei

3.8 Antimatter in Our Galaxy

3.9 Electrons and Positrons

3.9.1 The Positron Component

3.9.2 Considerations on the e+,e- Components

References

4 Indirect Cosmic Rays Detection: Particle Showers in the Atmosphere

4.1 Introduction and Historical Information

4.2 The Structure of the Atmosphere

4.3 The Electromagnetic (EM) Cascade

4.3.1 Heitler's Model of EM Showers

4.3.2 Analytic Solutions

4.4 Showers Initiated by Protons and Nuclei

4.4.1 The Muon Component in a Proton-Initiated Cascade

4.4.2 The EM Component in a Proton-Initiated Cascade

4.4.3 Depth of the Shower Maximum for a Proton Shower

4.4.4 Showers Induced by Nuclei: The Superposition Model

4.5 The Monte Carlo Simulations of Showers

4.6 Detectors of Extensive Air Showers at the Energy of the Knee

4.6.1 A Toy Example of an EAS Array

4.6.2 Some EAS Experiments

4.6.3 Cherenkov Light Produced by EAS Showers

4.7 The Time Profile of Cascades

4.8 The Arrival Direction of CRs as Measured with EAS Arrays

4.9 The CR Flux Measured with EAS Arrays

4.10 Mass Composition of CRs Around the Knee

4.10.1 The Ne Versus N? Method

4.10.2 Depth of the Shower Maximum

References

5 Diffusion of Cosmic Rays in the Galaxy

5.1 The Overabundance of Li, Be, and B in CRs

5.1.1 Production of Li, Be, and B During Propagation

5.2 Dating of Cosmic Rays with Radioactive Nuclei

5.2.1 Unstable Secondary-to-Primary Ratios

5.3 The Diffusion-Loss Equation

5.3.1 The Diffusion Equation with Nuclear Spallation

5.3.2 Numerical Estimate of the Diffusion Coefficient D

5.4 The Leaky box Model and its Evolutions

5.5 Energy-Dependence of the Escape Time ?esc

5.6 Energy Spectrum of Cosmic Rays at the Sources

5.7 Anisotropies due to the Diffusion

5.7.1 The Compton--Getting Effect

5.8 The Electron Energy Spectrum at the Sources

5.8.1 Synchrotron Radiation

5.8.2 Measured Energy Spectrum of Electrons

5.8.3 Average Distance of Accelerators of Electrons

References

6 Acceleration Mechanisms and Galactic Cosmic Ray Sources

6.1 Second- and First-Order Fermi Acceleration Mechanisms

6.1.1 Magnetic Mirrors

6.1.2 The Second-Order Fermi Acceleration Mechanism

6.1.3 The First-Order Fermi Acceleration Mechanism

6.1.4 The Power-Law Energy Spectrum from the Fermi Model

6.2 Diffusive Shock Acceleration in Strong Shock Waves

6.2.1 Supernova Explosions and Cosmic Rays Acceleration

6.2.2 Relevant Quantities in a Supernova Explosion

6.3 Maximum Energy Attainable in the Supernova Model

6.4 The Spectral Index of the Energy Spectrum

6.4.1 The Escape Probability

6.4.2 A Shock Front in a Mono-Atomic Gas

6.5 Success and Limits of the Standard Model of Cosmic Ray Acceleration

6.6 White Dwarfs and Neutron Stars

6.6.1 White Dwarfs

6.6.2 Neutron Stars and Pulsars

6.7 Possible Galactic Sources of Cosmic Rays Above the Knee

6.7.1 A Simple Model Involving Pulsars

6.7.2 A Simple Model Involving Binary Systems

References

7 Ultra High Energy Cosmic Rays

7.1 The Observational Cosmology and the Universe

7.2 The Large-Scale Structure of the Universe

7.3 Anisotropy of UHECRs: The Extragalactic Magnetic Fields

7.4 The Quest for Extragalactic Sources of UHECRs

7.5 Propagation of UHECRs

7.5.1 The Adiabatic Energy Loss

7.5.2 The Propagation in the CMB: The GZK Cut-Off

7.5.3 epm Pair Production by Protons on the CMB

7.5.4 Propagation in the Extragalactic Magnetic Field

7.6 The Fluorescence Light and Fluorescence Detectors

7.7 UHECR Measurements with a Single Technique

7.7.1 Results from HiRes and AGASA

7.8 Large Hybrid Observatories of UHECRs

7.9 The Flux of UHECRs

7.10 The Chemical Composition of UHECRs

7.11 Correlation of UHECRs with Astrophysical Objects

7.12 Constraints on Top-Down Models

7.13 Summary and Discussion of the Results

References

8 The Sky Seen in ?-rays

8.1 The Spectral Energy Distribution (SED) and Multiwavelength Observations

8.2 Astrophysical ?-rays: The Hadronic Model

8.2.1 Energy Spectrum of ?-rays from ?0 Decay

8.3 Galactic Sources and ?-rays

8.3.1 A Simple Estimate of the ?-ray Flux from a Galactic Source

8.4 Astrophysical ?-rays: The Leptonic Model

8.4.1 The Synchrotron Radiation from a Power-Law Spectrum

8.4.2 Synchrotron Self-Absorption

8.4.3 Inverse Compton Scattering and SSC

8.5 The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory Legacy

8.5.1 The EGRET ?-ray Sky

8.6 Fermi-LAT and Other Experiments for ?-ray Astronomy

8.6.1 The Fermi-LAT

8.6.2 AGILE and Swift

8.7 Diffuse ?-rays in the Galactic Plane

8.7.1 An Estimate of the Diffuse ?-ray Flux

8.8 The Fermi-LAT Catalogs

8.9 Gamma Ray Bursts

8.9.1 Classification of GRBs

8.10 Limits of ?-ray Observations from Space

References

9 The TeV Sky and Multiwavelength Astrophysics

9.1 The Imaging Cherenkov Technique

9.1.1 Gamma-Ray Versus Charged CR Discrimination

9.1.2 HESS, VERITAS and MAGIC

9.2 EAS Arrays for ?-astronomy

9.2.1 Sensitivity of ?-ray Experiments

9.3 TeV Astronomy: The Catalog

9.4 Gamma-Rays from Pulsars

9.5 The CRAB Pulsar and Nebula

9.6 The Problem of the Identification of Galactic CR Sources

9.7 Extended Supernova Remnants

9.7.1 The SED of Some Peculiar SNRs

9.8 Summary of the Study of Galactic Accelerators

9.9 Active Galaxies

9.10 The Extragalactic ?-ray Sky

9.11 The Spectral Energy Distributions of Blazars

9.11.1 Quasi-Simultaneous SEDs of Fermi-LAT Blazars

9.11.2 Simultaneous SED Campaigns and Mrk 421

9.12 Jets in Astrophysics

9.12.1 Time Variability in Jets

9.13 The Extragalactic Background Light

References

10 High-Energy Neutrino Astrophysics

10.1 The CRs, ?-rays and Neutrino Connection

10.1.1 Neutrino Detection Principle

10.2 Background in Large Volume Neutrino Detectors

10.3 Neutrino Detectors and Neutrino Telescopes

10.3.1 Muon Neutrino Detection

10.3.2 Showering Events

10.4 Cosmic Neutrino Flux Estimates

10.4.1 A Reference Neutrino Flux from a Galactic Source

10.4.2 Extragalactic Diffuse Neutrino Flux

10.4.3 Neutrinos from GRBs

10.4.4 Cosmogenic Neutrinos

10.5 Why km3-Scale Telescopes

10.5.1 The Neutrino Effective Area of Real Detectors

10.5.2 Number of Optical Sensors in a Neutrino Telescope

10.6 Water and Ice Properties

10.7 Operating Neutrino Telescopes

10.7.1 A Telescope in the Antarctic Ice

10.7.2 A Telescope in the Mediterranean Sea

10.8 Results from Neutrino Telescopes

10.8.1 Point-Like Sources

10.8.2 Limits from GRBs and Unresolved Sources

10.9 The First Measurement of Cosmic Neutrinos

References

11 Atmospheric Muons and Neutrinos

11.1 Nucleons in the Atmosphere

11.2 Secondary Mesons in the Atmosphere

11.3 Muons and Neutrinos from Charged Meson Decays

11.3.1 The Conventional Atmospheric Neutrino Flux

11.3.2 The Prompt Component in the Muon and Neutrino Flux

11.4 The Particle Flux at Sea Level

11.5 Measurements of Muons at Sea Level

11.6 Underground Muons

11.6.1 The Depth--Intensity Relation

11.6.2 Characteristics of Underground/Underwater Muons

11.7 Atmospheric Neutrinos

11.7.1 Early Experiments

11.8 Oscillations of Atmospheric Neutrinos

11.9 Measurement of Atmospheric ?? Oscillations in Underground Experiments

11.9.1 Event Topologies in Super-Kamiokande

11.9.2 The Iron Calorimeter Soudan 2 Experiment

11.9.3 Upward-Going Muons and MACRO

11.10 Atmospheric ?? Oscillations and Accelerator Confirmations

11.11 Atmospheric Neutrino Flux at Higher Energies

References

12 Connections Between Physics and Astrophysics of Neutrinos

12.1 Stellar Evolution of Solar Mass Stars

12.2 The Standard Solar Model and Neutrinos

12.3 Solar Neutrino Detection

12.4 The SNO Measurement of the Total Neutrino Flux

12.5 Oscillations and Solar Neutrinos

12.6 Oscillations Among Three Neutrino Families

12.6.1 Three Flavor Oscillation and KamLAND

12.6.2 Measurements of ?13

12.7 Matter Effect and Experimental Results

12.8 Summary of Experimental Results and Consequences for Neutrino Astrophysics

12.8.1 Effects of Neutrino Mixing on Cosmic Neutrinos

12.9 Formation of Heavy Elements in Massive Stars

12.10 Stellae Novae

12.11 Core-Collapse Supernovae (Type II)

12.11.1 GRB Supernovae

12.12 Neutrino Signal from a Core-Collapse SN

12.12.1 Supernova Rate and Location

12.12.2 The Neutrino Signal

12.12.3 Detection of Supernova Neutrinos

12.13 The SN1987A

12.14 Stellar Nucleosynthesis of Trans-Fe Elements

References

13 Microcosm and Macrocosm

13.1 The Standard Model of the Microcosm: The Big Bang

13.2 The Standard Model of Particle Physics and Beyond

13.3 Gravitational Evidence of Dark Matter

13.4 Dark Matter

13.5 Supersymmetry

13.5.1 Minimal Standard Supersymmetric Model

13.5.2 Cosmological Constraints and WIMP

13.6 Interactions of WIMPs with Ordinary Matter

13.6.1 WIMPs Annihilation

13.6.2 WIMPs Elastic Scattering

13.7 Direct Detection of Dark Matter: Event Rates

13.8 WIMPs Direct Detection

13.8.1 Solid-State Cryogenic Detectors

13.8.2 Scintillating Crystals

13.8.3 Noble Liquid Detectors

13.8.4 Present Experimental Results and the Future

13.9 Indirect WIMPs Detection

13.9.1 Neutrinos from WIMP Annihilation in Massive Objects

13.9.2 Gamma-Rays from WIMPs

13.9.3 The Positron Excess: A WIMP Signature?

13.10 What's Next?

References

Index