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ATEX-Explosive Atmospheres - Risk Assessment, Control and Compliance
Torben Jespen
Verlag Springer-Verlag, 2016
ISBN 9783319313672 , 196 Seiten
Format PDF, OL
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Geräte
Preface
6
Contents
8
1 ATEX—Introduction
14
1.1 Disclaimer
16
Part I ATEX Workplace Safety Aspects—Employer Obligations
17
2 ATEX—Workplace Legislation
18
2.1 Introduction
18
2.2 Explosions—Hazards and Risks
20
2.3 Workplace Obligations (Directive 1999/92)
21
2.3.1 Zone Classification—Likelihood of Explosive Atmosphere Being Present
22
2.3.2 Likelihood of Ignition Sources Being Present and Effective
26
2.3.3 Anticipated Effects
27
2.3.4 Explosion Protection Document
27
2.4 Equipment Selection
28
2.5 Explosion Protection Measures—Mitigating the Effects
29
3 ATEX—Risk Parameters
31
3.1 Introduction
31
3.2 Gas/Vapour Explosion Risk Parameters
32
3.2.1 Flash Point (TF)
32
3.2.2 Limits of Flammability
34
3.2.3 Auto-Ignition Temperature
34
3.2.4 Gas Group
35
3.2.5 Vapor Density
35
3.2.6 Summarizing
36
3.2.7 Examples
36
3.3 Dust Explosion Risk Parameters
37
3.3.1 Physical Properties
37
3.3.2 Minimum Explosive Concentration (LEL)
37
3.3.3 Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE)
38
3.3.4 Minimum Ignition Temperature (MIT or Tig)
39
3.3.5 Layer Ignition Temperature (LIT or Ts)
40
3.3.6 Max Explosion Pressure (Pmax)
40
3.3.7 Kst Value (Max Rate of Pressure Rise)
40
3.3.8 Powder Volume Resistivity
41
3.3.9 Housekeeping
44
3.3.10 Summarizing
44
3.3.11 Examples
44
4 ATEX—Prevention
46
4.1 Introduction
46
4.2 Avoidance of Fuel (Flammable Materials)
46
4.3 Keeping Conditions Outside the Flammable Range
47
4.4 Inerting
47
4.5 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
49
4.5.1 CO2 Inerting at Coal Grinding
49
4.6 Nitrogen (N2)
51
5 ATEX—Equipment Selection
52
5.1 Introduction
52
5.2 Temperature Considerations
53
5.3 Gas and Dust Groups
55
5.4 Ingress Protection
56
5.5 Method of Protection
57
5.5.1 Electrical Equipment
57
5.5.2 Non-electrical Equipment Types of Protection
60
5.6 ATEX Marking
60
5.7 ATEX EU Declaration and Attestation of Conformity
63
6 ATEX—Mitigating Measures
65
6.1 Introduction
65
6.2 Explosion Relief Venting
66
6.2.1 Use of Vent Ducts
67
6.2.2 Effects External to the Vent
68
6.3 Explosion Resistant Design (Explosion Containment)
70
6.4 Explosion Suppression
71
6.5 Explosion Isolation (Explosion Decoupling)
72
7 ATEX—Risk Assessment
73
7.1 Introduction
73
7.2 Likelihood of an Explosive Atmosphere
73
7.3 Likelihood of an Effective Ignition Source
74
7.4 Comprehensive Risk Assessment
77
7.5 Anticipated Effects of an Explosion
77
7.6 Some Aspects of Controlling Risks Due to Static Electricity
77
7.6.1 Charge Generation
78
7.6.2 Electrostatic Charge Accumulation
79
7.6.3 Discharge Mechanism
81
7.6.4 Control Methods
82
7.6.4.1 Metallic and Conductive Components
82
7.6.4.2 Flexible Hoses and Connections
82
7.6.4.3 Personnel and Flooring
83
7.6.4.4 Liquids
83
7.6.4.5 Powders
84
7.6.4.6 Non-conductive Components
84
7.6.4.7 Vessels
84
7.7 Battery Charging Areas
85
8 Zone Classification—Oil Fluids
86
8.1 Introduction
86
8.2 Classification of Oil Fluids
87
8.3 Zone Classification—The Simple Cases
88
8.4 Zone Classification Key Terms
89
8.5 Zone Classification Technique
91
8.6 Zone Classification and Risk Assessment
92
8.7 Some Zone Classification Situations
93
8.7.1 Road Tanker Unloading (Open Air)
93
8.7.2 Storage Tanks and Vents
93
8.7.3 Liquid Pools Due to Spillage in Open Air
94
8.7.4 Point Source Releases (Failure Leaks) in Open Air
95
8.7.5 Some Aspects of Indoor Releases
96
8.8 Ambient Temperatures
97
References
98
9 Zone Classification—Natural Gas
99
9.1 Introduction
99
9.2 Grade of Release
99
9.2.1 Primary Grade of Release
100
9.2.2 Secondary Grade of Release
101
9.3 Gas Zones, Definition and Guidelines
102
9.4 Effects of Ventilation
103
9.5 Natural Gas Zone Classification Around Installations
105
9.5.1 Leakage
105
9.5.2 Non-ideal Vent Pipe Terminations Associated with Relief Valves
105
9.6 Zone Classification and Risk Assessment
106
9.7 Adequacy of Ventilation
106
9.7.1 Assessing the Adequacy of Ventilation
106
9.7.2 Degree of Ventilation
108
9.7.3 Setting Focus on Natural Gas (Methane)
108
9.7.4 Supplementary Natural Gas Release Calculations
110
References
111
10 Zone Classification—Dusts
112
10.1 Introduction
112
10.2 Explosion Risk Parameters
113
10.3 Grade of Release
114
10.4 Zone and Zone Extent Assignment
115
10.5 Explosion Risk Assessment Aspects
117
10.5.1 Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE)
119
10.5.2 Powder Volume Resistivity
120
10.6 Controlling Dust Explosion Risks
122
10.7 Fire Risks—Supplementing the Explosion Risks
124
10.8 Coal Dust Zone Classification
125
10.8.1 Some Plant Equipment Considerations
127
10.8.2 Risk Assessment—Inside Equipment
128
10.8.3 Risk Assessment—Outside Equipment
129
10.8.4 Methane Explosion Aspects
129
10.8.5 Equipment Selection
130
References
133
11 ATEX—Worldwide
134
11.1 Introduction
134
11.2 The Class/Division System
134
11.2.1 Classes
134
11.2.2 Divisions
135
11.2.3 Groups
135
11.3 The Zone System
136
11.4 Comparing the Class/Division and the Zone System
136
11.5 Explosive Gas Atmosphere Equipment Temperature Codes
137
11.6 Ingress Protection Classification Systems
137
11.7 Electrical Protection Concepts
139
11.8 Mechanical Protection Concepts
140
11.9 Marking of ATEX Equipment
141
11.10 Approval Agencies
141
Part II ATEX Equipment Safety Aspects—Manufacturer Obligations
142
12 ATEX—Equipment Legislation
143
12.1 Introduction
143
12.2 Scope of the ATEX Equipment Directive 2014/34
144
12.3 Assemblies
144
12.4 Equipment Groups and Categories
145
12.5 Obligations of Economic Operators
146
12.5.1 Manufacturer
146
12.5.2 Authorised Representative
147
12.5.3 Importer
148
12.5.4 Distributer
148
12.6 Essential Health and Safety Requirements (EHSR)
149
12.7 Conformity Assessment Procedures
149
12.8 Documents of Conformity
151
12.9 Technical Documentation (Dossier)
152
12.10 Instructions
153
12.11 Markings
153
12.12 Some Important Basic Aspects
154
12.13 Standards and Protection Methods
156
12.14 Basic Requirements and Ignition Hazard Assessment (IHA)
156
13 ATEX—Ignition Hazard Assessment (IHA)
158
13.1 Introduction
158
13.2 Ignition Source Terms/Definitions
158
13.3 Hot Surfaces
159
13.4 Mechanically Generated Sparks
160
13.5 Ignition Hazard Assessment (IHA)—Step by Step
160
13.5.1 Identification of Relevant Possible Ignition Sources
161
13.5.2 Preliminary Ignition Hazard Estimation and Evaluation
162
13.5.3 Preventive Measures Implemented and Their Documentation
163
13.5.4 Eventual Assessment
164
13.6 Technical Documentation
165
14 ATEX—Ignition Sources
166
14.1 Introduction
166
14.2 Possible Ignition Sources
166
14.2.1 Hot Surfaces
166
14.2.2 Flame and Hot Gases, Including Hot Particles
167
14.2.3 Mechanical Generated Sparks
167
14.2.4 Electrical Equipment
168
14.2.5 Static Electricity
168
14.2.6 Chemical Reactions, Including Self Ignition and Spontaneous Ignition
168
14.2.7 Lighting
169
14.2.8 Stray Electric Currents e.g. from Cathodic Corrosion Protection Systems
169
14.2.9 Radio Frequency Waves
169
14.2.10 Optical Radiation, Including Laser Radiation
169
14.2.11 Ionising Radiation
169
14.2.12 Adiabatic Compression and Shock Waves
170
14.3 Expected and/or Rare Malfunction
170
14.4 Examples on the Use of the Ignition Hazard Assessment Scheme
171
14.4.1 Possible Ignition Source Table
171
14.4.2 IHA Table
172
15 ATEX—Communicating IHA Results
173
15.1 Communicating IHA Results
173
15.2 Communicating Absence of Inherent Potential Ignition Sources
174
15.2.1 Using ATEX Equipment Directive 2014/34 Anyhow
174
15.2.2 Supplementing a Required Declaration of Conformity
175
15.2.3 Using a Separate Declaration
175
16 ATEX—Ex-Marking
176
16.1 Ex-Marking
176
16.2 CE- and Ex-Marking According to ATEX Directive 2014/34
176
16.3 Ex-Marking According to EN 13463-1
178
16.4 Ex-Marking According to EN 60079-0
179
16.5 A Comprehensive ATEX Equipment Marking
180
Part III Basic Fire and Explosion Aspects
182
17 Fires and Explosions—Basic Knowledge
183
17.1 Introduction
183
17.2 Definitions
183
17.3 Fires and Explosions
185
17.4 Deflagrations
186
17.5 Confined (Internal) Explosions
188
17.6 Partly Confined Gas Explosions
189
17.7 Gas Explosions in Process Areas and Unconfined Areas
190
17.8 Flash Fires
191
A Few Facts About the Author
192
Index
194
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