Concise Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Language and Linguistics

Front Cover

Concise Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Language and Linguistics

Copyright Page

The Editors

Alphabetical List of Articles

Subject Classification

Introduction

Contributors

A

A Priori Knowledge: Linguistic Aspects

Bibliography

Action Sentences and Adverbs

Action Sentences

Adverbs

Bibliography

Analytic Philosophy

Frege’s Analysis of Number Statements

Russell’s Theory of Descriptions

Moore’s Conception of Analysis

Wittgenstein’s Tractatus

Logical and Metaphysical Analysis

Ordinary Language Philosophy

Logical Positivism and the Quinean Tradition

Analytic Philosophy Today

Bibliography

Analytic/Synthetic, Necessary/Contingent, and a Priori/a Posteriori: Distinction

Necessary/Contingent Distinction

The a Priori/a Posteriori Distinction

Kripke on the Necessary a Posteriori and the Contingent a Priori

The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction

Metaphysical Analyticity

Quine’s Belief-Revisability Argument

Frege-Analyticity

Quine’s Objections to Frege-Analyticity of the Second Kind

Epistemological Analyticity

Bibliography

Anaphora: Philosophical Aspects

Bibliography

Architecture of Grammar

The Competence-Performance Divide

Grammars: Formal-Language Theory vs. Psychology

The Formal-Language Pattern

The Language Faculty as a Subpart of Central Cognitive Systems

Combining Formal Language and Psychological Traditions

Issues of Grammar Design

The Status of the Lexicon

The Syntax-Semantics Debate and the Grammar-Parser Relation

Summary

Bibliography

Aristotle and Linguistics

Bibliography

Assertion

Bibliography

B

Behaviorism: Varieties

Psychological Behaviorism

Rejection of Introspection as an Experimental Method

Shunning of Internal Events

Emphasis on Learning

Philosophical Behaviorism

Reductive Philosophical Behaviorism

Nonreductive Philosophical Behaviorism

Eliminative Philosophical Behaviorism

The Return of Psychological Behaviorism?

Bibliography

Further Reading

Boole and Algebraic Semantics

Bibliography

C

Causal Theories of Reference and Meaning

Reference, Meaning, and Causal Theories

The Causal-Historical Theory of Reference

The Causal Theory of Meaning

Problems and Prospects

Bibliography

Character versus Content

Content/Character Distinction and Semantics

Content/Character Distinction and Philosophy

Bibliography

Cognitive Science and Philosophy of Language

The Ideal Language Tradition

Example: Proper Names

Russell’s Theory of Descriptions

Limitations of the Ideal Language Approach

The Ordinary Language Tradition

Example: Ryle on Free Will

Limitations of the Ordinary Language Approach

The Cognitivist Tradition

Computational and Representational Theories of Mind

The Rejection of Linguistic Behaviorism

The Open Evidence Base

Meanings as Mental States

The Limitations of Cognitive Science

The New Philosophy of Language

Two More Theories of Proper Names

Empirical Evidence

Final Words

Bibliography

Communication: Semiotic Approaches

The Rise of a Controversy

Saussurean 'Signification' as Keyword and Sign of Contradiction

The Functionalist Reading

Some Code-model Approaches

Charles Sanders Peirce

Conclusive Remarks

Bibliography

Communication, Understanding, and Interpretation: Philosophical Aspects

The Nature of Communication

Interpretation and Understanding

Bibliography

Comparatives: Semantics

Introduction

Gradability

Comparison

Comparison Cross-Linguistically

Bibliography

Compositionality: Philosophical Aspects

Considerations Against Semantic Compositionality

Formal Considerations

History

Bibliography

Compositionality: Semantic Aspects

Bibliography

Concepts

The Classical Theory

Probabilistic Theories

The Theory-Theory

Conceptual Atomism

Bibliography

Conditionals

Form and Meaning

Truth-Conditional Semantics

Material Conditional

(Variably) Strict Implication

Relative Likelihood

Probability

Summary

Bibliography

Context and Common Ground

History

Bases for Common Ground

Communal Common Ground

Personal Common Ground

Language and Communal Common Ground

Discourse and Personal Common Ground

Bibilography

Context Principle

Sentence Primacy: Three Interpretations of the Context Principle

Motivating the Context Principle

A Possible Objection to the Context Principle

Bibliography

Contextualism in Epistemology

Bibliography

Conventions in Language

Convention and Analyticity

Grice

Lewis

Lewis’s General Notion of Convention

Conventions of Language

A Basic Difficulty for Grice-Lewis

Chomskyan Accounts of Linguistic Convention

Convention versus Inference

Bibliography

Cooperative Principle

The Principle Itself

What Counts as Cooperation?

The Cooperative Principle and the Maxims of Cooperative Discourse

Failures to Fulfill Maxims and Implicature

Major Critiques of the Cooperative Principle

Problems with the Term 'Cooperation'

Problems with the Maxims: The Haphazardness of Communication and the Specificity of Maxims

Scholarship Influenced by the Cooperative Principle

Grammar

Neo-Gricean Pragmatics

Politeness Theory

Question Processing

Gender Studies

Teacher Research and Pedagogy

Conclusion

Bibliography

Coreference: Identity and Similarity

Defining Coreference

Identity

Similarity

Bound-Variable Anaphora

E-Type Anaphora

Anaphora of Laziness

Bridging Cross-reference Anaphora

Bibliography

Counterfactuals

Metalinguistic Approaches

Possible Worlds Approach

Some Issues

Bibliography

Creativity in Language

Coining Words

Children Coin Words, Too

Language Revival

Syntactic Units and Combinations

Extending Language in New Directions

Bibliography

D

Data and Evidence

Sources of Data

Corpora

Grammaticality Judgments

Fieldwork

Experiments

Kinds of Data

Language Acquisition and Creolization

Second Language

Bilingualism

Language Disorders

Performance Errors

Typology and Historical Change

General Remarks

Variability

Data, Evidence, and Theory

Bibliography

De Dicto versus De Re

Bibliography

Default Semantics

Bibliography

Definite and Indefinite

What Does 'Definite' Mean?

Uniqueness?

Familiarity?

Some Puzzling Cases

Grammatical Phenomena

Existential Sentences

The Have Construction

Other Kinds of Definite and Indefinite NPs

Other Kinds of Definite NPs

Bare NPs

Other Types of Indefinite NPs

Other Kinds of Categorizations

Old and New

The Givenness Hierarchy

The Accessibility Hierarchy

Definite and Indefinite in Other Languages

Bibliography

Definitions: Uses and Varieties of

Uses

Varieties

Comparatively Context-Free Forms of Definition

Comparatively Context-Dependent Definitions

Uses Again

Bibliography

Deflationism

Bibliography

Deixis and Anaphora: Pragmatic Approaches

Bibliography

Description and Prescription

Bibliography

Relevant Website

Descriptions, Definite and Indefinite: Philosophical Aspects

Russell’s Theories of Description

Russell’s Early Theory of Denoting

Russell’s Mature Theory

Definite Descriptions in Principia mathematica

Descriptions and Scope

Responses to Russell’s Theory of Definite Descriptions

Strawson’s Critique of Russell

The Ambiguity Thesis

Responses to Russell’s Theory of Indefinite Descriptions

Referential Uses of Indefinite Descriptions

An Alternative Nonreferential Account

Bibliography

Direct Reference

What Is Direct Reference?

Some Closely Related Concepts

Problems with Direct Reference

Bibliography

Discourse Representation Theory

The Problem of Unbound Anaphora

Basic Ideas

Discourse Representation Structures (DRSs)

Extensions: Tense and Plurals

Incorporating Generalized Quantifiers

Discourse Structures and Partial Models

Reasoning with DRSs

Definition 1 (DRT)

Definition 2 (Semantics of DRT)

Definition 3 (DRT Consequence)

Theorem 4

Proof

Theorem 5

The Treatment of Ambiguities

Bibliography

Donkey Sentences

Bibliography

Dthat

Bibliography

Dynamic Semantics

Information and Information Change

Discourse Representation Theory and File Change Semantics

Dynamic Predicate Logic

Update Semantics

Presuppositions

Further Reading

Bibliography

E

E-Language versus I-Language

E-Language/I-Language Distinction

Some Preliminary Characterizations

Getting at What’s Fundamental

Individualism and Antiindividualism

Semantic Intuitions in Linguistics and General Epistemology

Bibliography

Empiricism

Species of Empiricism

Empiricism and Language

Bibliography

Empty Names

The Problem of Negative Existentials

Millianism

Fregeanism

More Millianism: The Gappy Proposition View

Still More Millianism: The Communicated Proposition View

Bibliography

Epistemology and Language

Bibliography

Essential Indexical

Bibliography

Event-Based Semantics

Bibliography

Evolution of Semantics

Cognitive Preadaptations for Semantic Knowledge

The Importance of Motor Evolution

The Importance of Intention-Reading Skills

The Importance of Personality Types

The Nature and Evolution of Semantic Knowledge

Concept Formation

The Nature of Lexical Concepts: The Natural Partitions Hypothesis

Lexical Concepts and Concept-Combination

Polysemy

Abstract Concepts

Cultural Evolution

Bibliography

Evolution of Syntax

Language

Evolution of Language

Syntax

Evolution of Syntax

Is Syntax Adaptive?

Exaptation

Biological or Nonbiological Evolution

The 'Big Picture' and Details of Syntax

Effects of Particular Developments Within Theories of Syntax

When Did Syntax Emerge?

How Many Stages?

A Series of Stages

Conclusion

Bibliography

Existence

What Existence Is

The Hume-Kant View

The Frege-Russell View

The Meinong-Russell View

Bibliography

Expression Meaning versus Utterance/Speaker Meaning

Bibliography

Expressive Power of Language

Bibliography

Extensionality and Intensionality

Semantical Aspects of Extensionality and Intensionality

Extensionality and Intensionality in Formal Settings

Bibliography

Externalism about Content

The Thesis of Externalism

Arguments for and against Externalism

Natural Kind Terms

Indexicals

Burge and Linguistic Practice

Accounts of Content

Externalism’s Consequences

Bibliography

F

Fictional Discourse: Philosophical Aspects

The Nature of Fictional Discourse

Truth in a Fiction

Semantics of Fictional Discourse

Responding to Fictions

Bibliography

Figurative Language: Semiotics

Introduction

Theories of Metaphor

Selected Review of Theories of Metaphor

Aristotle (384-322 b.c.)

Giambattista Vico (1668-1744)

I. A. Richards (1893-1979)

Max Black (1909-1988)

Groupe µ

Paul Ricoeur (1913-2005)

George Lakoff (b. 1941) and Mark Johnson (b. 1949)

Conceptual Metaphor

Metonymy

Synecdoche

The Image-Schema

Ronald W. Langacker (b. 1942)

Literal Versus Figurative Language

Semiosis and the Signifying Order

The Uses of Metaphor

Theory-Constitutive Metaphors

Linguistics

Physics

Anatomy

Second Language Pedagogy

Concluding Remarks

Bibliography

Formal Semantics

Introduction

Semantics vs. Lexicography

The Notion of Synonymy and Its Problems

Truth and Semantic Competence

Semantic Modeling

The Semantics/Pragmatics Interface

Conclusions

Bibliography

Formalism/Formalist Linguistics

General Characterization

The Research Program of Chomskyan Linguistics

Other Mentalist Approaches

Purely Formalist Approaches

Aspects of Language Use

References

Frame Problem

Origins of the Problem

Frame Axioms Result in Computational Overload

The Sleeping Dog Strategy and Nonmonotonic Logics

The Yale Shooting Problem

Holism Presents a Problem for the Sleeping Dog Strategy

Concluding Remarks

Bibliography

Functionalist Theories of Language

Functionalism within the Gamut of Linguistic Theories

The Basic Tenets of Functionalism

Further Features

Inclusive Rather Than Core Grammars

The Use of Authentic Textual Data

Flexibility of Meaning and Structure

A Discourse Grammar, Not Just a Sentence Grammar

Typological Orientation

A Constructivist Account of Acquisition

Important Functional Theories

Functional Grammar

Role and Reference Grammar

Systemic Functional Grammar

West Coast Functionalism

Usage-Based Functionalist-Cognitive Models

Conclusions

Bibliography

Future Tense and Future Time Reference

Bibliography

G

Game-Theoretical Semantics

Bibliography

Generative Grammar

Bibliography

Generative Semantics

Foreword (by Randy Harris)

Generative Semantics (by James D McCawley)

GS Positions on Controversial Issues

GS Policies on the Conduct of Research

Prominent and Influential Analyses Proposed within the GS Approach

The History of GS

Bibliography

Generic Reference

Forms of Generic Reference

Theory of Generic Reference

Bibliography

Grammatical Meaning

Bibliography

H

Holism, Semantic and Epistemic

Epistemic Holism

Semantic Holism

The Argument from Compositionality and the Context Principle

Problems with Semantic Holism

Learning Problem

Instability Problem

Disagreement Problem

Semantic Holism and the Philosophy of Mind

Conclusion

Bibliography

I

Ideational Theories of Meaning

Bibliography

Identity and Sameness: Philosophical Aspects

Introduction

The Logic of Identity

Relative and Absolute Identity

Criteria of Identity

Identity over Time

Contingent Identity

Vague Identity

Bibliography

Immunity to Error through Misidentification

IEM

IEM 'I'-Utterances

Bibliography

Implicature

The Basic Notions

Beyond Grice

Presumptive Meanings: Levinson’s Theory of Generalized Conversational Implicature

Division of Pragmatic Labor: Horn’s Q- and R-Principles

Relevance Theory: Carston’s Underdeterminacy Thesis

Quality Reconsidered

Implicature and the Grammar/Pragmatics Interface

Conclusions

Bibliography

Indeterminacy, Semantic

The Argument from Below

Reactions to the Argument from Below

The Argument from Above

Reactions to the Argument from Above

Bibliography

Indexicality: Philosophical Aspects

Bibliography

Innate Ideas

What Is Innateness?

Which Concepts are Innate?

Bibliography

Innate Knowledge

Bibliography

Intention and Semantics

Bibliography

Interpreted Logical Forms

Propositional Attitude Reports

What Are ILFs?

Puzzles and Problems

The Simple Name Puzzle

The Simple Demonstrative Puzzle

The Hard Demonstrative Puzzle

The Hard Name Puzzle

Prospects

Bibliography

Irony

Bibliography

L

Language as an Object of Study

Language as a Social Fact

Language as Behavior

Language as a Mental Organ

Language as an Abstract Object

Bibliography

Lexical Conceptual Structure

Introduction

Overview of Conceptual Semantics

Autonomy of Semantics

Lexical Conceptual Structure

Ontological Categories

Conceptual Formation Rules

X-bar Semantics

General Constraints on Semantic Theories

Comparison with Other Works

Suggested Readings

Bibliography

Lexical Semantics: Overview

Word Knowledge

Historical Overview

Ambiguity and Polysemy

Lexical Relations

The Semantics of a Lexical Entry

Lexical Semantic Classifications

Argument Structure

Event Structure and Lexical Decomposition

Qualia Structure

Bibliography

Limits of Language

Bibliography

Linguistic Reality

Why Those Objects?

What Are They?

Types and Tokens

What Are Word Types?

Realism

Conceptualism

Nominalism

Bibliography

Linguistics as a Science

What Is a Science?

The Scientific Study of Language

Bibliography

Linguistics: Approaches

Introduction

The Status of Linguistic Form

Rationalist and Empiricist Approaches and the Status of Data

The Production of Form

The 'Landscape' of Language and its Division into Fields of Linguistic Inquiry

Bibliography

Linguistics: Discipline of

Introduction

The Meaning of 'Language'

Knowledge of Language

Describing Knowledge of Language

Explanation in Language

Linguistics as a 'Science'

Beyond Language: Pragmatics and the Language of Thought

Bibliography

Logic and Language: Philosophical Aspects

Introduction

The Mathematicization of Logic: Leibniz and Boole

Logic and Language in Frege

Russell: Definite Descriptions and Logical Atomism

Wittgenstein on Logic and Language

Carnap and the Vienna Circle

Quine: the Thesis of Gradualism

Bibliography

Logical Consequence

Fundamentals

The Formal Study of Logical Consequence

General Philosophical Concerns

Bibliography

Logical Form in Linguistics

Bibliography

Lying, Honesty, and Promising

Informational Theories

Noninformational Theories

Bibliography

M

Mass Nouns, Count Nouns, and Non-count Nouns: Philosophical Aspects

Plural Count Nouns and Non-count Nouns

The Concept 'Mass Noun' and Its Supposed Criterion

An Illusory Criterion

The Non-metaphysical Goods

Bibliography

Maxims and Flouting

The Cooperative Principle

The Maxims

Quantity

Quality

Relation

Manner

What Is a Maxim?

Flouting: Past, Present, and Future

Conclusion

Bibliography

Meaning: Cognitive Dependency of Lexical Meaning

Bibliography

Meaning: Development

Conventionality and Contrast

In Conversation

Making Inferences

Pragmatics and Meaning

Another Approach

Sources of Meanings

Summary

Bibliography

Meaning: Overview of Philosophical Theories

The Direct Reference Theory

Meaning as Truth Conditions

Sense and Reference

The Idea Theory

Meaning as Use

Quine’s Skepticism

Bibliography

Meaning: Procedural and Conceptual

Relevance Theoretic Semantics

Why Languages Develop Procedural Encoding

The Conceptual-Procedural Distinction and Conventional Implicature

Procedural Analyses of Discourse Markers

Future Directions

Bibliography

Mentalese

The Basic Hypothesis

What Is Mentalese Like?

The Thinker’s Public Language, or a Proprietary Inner Code?

Psycho-Syntax and Psycho-Semantics

Further Arguments for LOT

Theories of Mental Processing Are Committed to LOT

LOT Explains Some Pervasive Features of Thought

Bibliography

Metalanguage versus Object Language

Bibliography

Metaphor: Philosophical Theories

Metaphor and Philosophy

Defining Metaphor

Delineating Metaphor

The Metaphorical and the Literal

Deviance and Value

Deviance: Semantic or Pragmatic?

Theories of Metaphor

Conditions of Adequacy

Aristotle

Interaction Theories of Metaphor

Davidson and Metaphorical Meaning

Bibliography

Metaphor: Psychological Aspects

The Ubiquity of Metaphor in Language

Metaphor Understanding: The Standard View

Psychological Tests of the Standard View

Psychological Models of Metaphor Understanding

Metaphor in Thought

Psychological Studies on Conceptual Metaphor

Bibliography

Metaphysics, Substitution Salva Veritate and the Slingshot Argument

Metaphysics and Language: Facts, Propositions and 'MCT Operators'

Substitution Salva Veritate

The Argument: The Slingshot Itself

Aiming the Slingshot at Facts, and Factlike Things

Responses to the Slingshot Argument

Bibliography

Modal Logic

Bibliography

Modern Linguistics: 1800 to the Present Day

Introduction

Comparative Philology

The Neogrammarians

Saussurean Structuralism

Linguistic Geography

Linguistic Anthropology

Linguistic Relativity

Behaviorism

Distributionalism

Generativism

Sociolinguistics and Pragmatics

Speech-Act Theory

Language Origins and Nonhuman Language

Retrospect

Bibliography

Modularity

Bibliography

Monotonicity and Generalized Quantifiers

Bibliography

Montague Semantics

Historical Background

Aims

The Compositional Approach

Interpretation in a Model

Extension and Intension

A Small Fragment

Some PTQ Phenomena

Developments

Further Reading

Bibliography

Mood, Clause Types, and Illocutionary Force

Bibliography

N

Natural Kind Terms

What Are Natural Kind Terms?

The Semantics of Natural Kind Terms: Descriptivism

Against Descriptivism

Causal Theories

Descriptivism Redux

Hybrid Views

Bibliography

Natural versus Nonnatural Meaning

Grice’s Distinction

Grice’s Theory of Non-natural Meaning

Other Remarks

Bibliography

Naturalism

Bibliography

Negation: Philosophical Aspects

Possible Properties of Negation

Negations, Consistency, and Paradoxes

More Than One Negation?

Negation and Denial

Bibliography

Negation: Semantic Aspects

Classical and Nonclassical Negation

Negation and Polarity

Negation Versus Denial

Metalinguistic Negation

Bibliography

Nominalism

Extreme Realism: Plato’s Ideal Exemplars

Moderate Realism or Conceptualism: Aristotle’s Universals

The Moderate Realism/Conceptualism of Medieval Aristotelians

Abstraction, Induction, and Essentialism

The Ontological Commitments of Moderate Realism

Late Medieval and Modern Nominalism

Nominalism, Antirealism, and Skepticism

Bibliography

Nonmonotonic Inference

Bibliography

Nonstandard Language Use

Bibliography

Normativity

Prescriptive Versus Descriptive Linguistics

Semantics and Normativity

Pragmatics and Normativity

Linguistic Properties of Normative Terms

Bibliography

O

Object-Dependent Thoughts

Singular Thoughts as Object Dependent

Epistemological Consequences of Object-Dependence

The Central Motivation for Object Dependence

Criticisms and Rivals

Bibliography

Objectivity in Moral Discourse

Ontological Objectivity

Ontological Objectivity and Moral Discourse

Grammatical and Semantic Markers

Ontological Markers

Epistemological Marker

Moral Realism

Denying Ontological Objectivity in Moral Discourse

Methodological Objectivism

Conclusion

Bibliography

Objects, Properties, and Functions

Bibliography

Ordinary Language Philosophy

Language and Philosophy

Ordinary Language Philosophy

The Oxford Version: Austin

Some Questions about Austin’s Approach

The Cambridge Version: Wittgenstein

Some Questions About Wittgenstein’s Approach

Conclusion

Bibliography

Origin of Language Debate

Preliminaries

Discussions on the Origin of Language in Classical Antiquity

Discussions on the Origin of Language in the Enlightenment

The Origin of Language Topic in the 19th and 20th Centuries

Bibliography

P

Paradoxes, Semantic

The Paradoxes

Suggested Solutions to the Liar

Bibliography

Philosophy of Linguistics

Bibliography

Philosophy of Science and Linguistics

Bibliography

Plato and His Predecessors

Predecessors

Plato

Bibliography

Plato's Cratylus and Its Legacy

Bibliography

Plurality

Bibliography

Polysemy and Homonymy

Evidence Used in Differentiating Homonyms and Polysemes

Theoretical Approaches to Polysemy and Homonymy

Bibliography

Possible Worlds: Philosophical Theories

Bibliography

Pragmatic Determinants of What Is Said

Bibliography

Predication

Bibliography

Presupposition

Introduction

Operational Criteria

The Logical Problem

The Threat to Bivalence

The Russell Tradition

The Frege-Strawson Tradition

The Trivalent Solution

The Discourse Approach

The Structural Source of Presuppositions

Bibliography

Principles and Parameters Framework of Generative Grammar

Mechanisms for Phrase Structure Representations

Constraints on Derivations and Representations

Full Interpretation

Locality of Movement

Binding Theory

Bound Anaphors

Pronouns

Conclusion

Bibliography

Private Language Argument

The Argument’s Target

Supplementary Strands

Rules and Communities

Radical Evidence-Independence and the 'Theory Response'

Bibliography

Proper Names: Philosophical Aspects

What Are Proper Names?

Two Central Issues: Meaning and Reference

Theories of Meaning

Millian Theories

Description Theories

Theories of Reference

Description Theories

Causal Theories

Hybrid Theories

Other Expressions

Definite Descriptions

Natural Kind Terms

Bibliography

Propositional Attitude Ascription: Philosophical Aspects

Bibliography

Propositions

Roles Played by Propositions

Propositions as Abstract Entities

Two Approaches: Structured and Structureless Entities

Two Structured Approaches: Russellian and Fregean

Ontology or Semantics?

A Problem for the Structureless Approach

Problems for the Structured Approaches

Bibliography

Q

Quantifiers: Semantics

Standard Quantifiers: Some Linguistic Generalizations

Some Non-Standard Quantifiers

Bibliography

R

Radical Interpretation, Translation and Interpretationalism

Radical Translation

Radical Interpretation

Interpretationalism

Criticisms of Radical Interpretation and Interpretationalism

Bibliography

Realism and Antirealism

Bibliography

Reference: Philosophical Theories

What Is Reference?

Descriptivism

Descriptivist Theories of Reference

Frege’s and Russell’s Versions of Descriptivism

Differences Between Descriptivist Views

Antidescriptivism and the Causal-Historical Theory of Reference

Problems With Descriptivism

The Causal-Historical Theory of Reference

Problems With the Causal-Historical Theory

Skepticism, Naturalism, and Minimalism About Reference

Summary

Bibliography

Referential versus Attributive

Donnellan’s Contrast

Donnellan’s Use of the Contrast against Russell

Pragmatic Treatments (Kripke)

Semantic Treatments (Wettstein)

Developments

Bibliography

Relevance Theory

Basic Claims

Code versus Inference

A Post-Gricean Theory

Two Principles of Relevance

Assessing Relevance: Cognitive Effects versus Processing Effort

Current Issues and Open Debates

The Explicit/Implicit Distinction

Conceptual and Procedural Encoding

Ad hoc Concept Formation

Mutual Knowledge versus Mutual Manifestness

Communicated and Noncommunicated Acts

Irony and the Notion of Echo

Modularity

Relevance Theory as Asocial

Empirical Evidence

Applications

Concluding Remarks

Bibliography

Representation in Language and Mind

The Relationship between Language and Thought

Mental Representation as Basic

Information-Based Theories

Teleological Theories

Conceptual Role Theories

Constraints on a Theory of Mental Representation

Linguistic Representation as Basic

Norms-Based Theories

A Non-Reductive Proposal

Bibliography

Rigid Designation

Introduction

Names and Rigidity

Types of Rigidity

Bibliography

Rules and Rule-Following

Rule-Following and Meaning

Constitutive and Epistemological Skepticism

KW’s Skeptical Argument

KW’s Skeptical Solution

Significance of the Issue

Responses to the Skeptical Paradox and Skeptical Solution

Bibliography

S

Saussure: Theory of the Sign

Bibliography

Scope and Binding: Semantic Aspects

Bibliography

Semantic Value

Bibliography

Semantics of Interrogatives

Metasemantics

Semantics

Bibliography

Semantics-Pragmatics Boundary

The Philosophical Debate

The Mentalist Picture of the Semantics-Pragmatics Boundary

Bibliography

Sense and Reference: Philosophical Aspects

The Origins and Central Core of the Sense/Reference Distinction

More on Frege’s Distinction

Subsequent History, and Criticisms

Bibliography

Situation Semantics

Guide to Literature

Bibliography

Social Construction and Language

Nonanalytic Approaches

Analytic Approaches

Early Analytic Approaches and Social Construction

John Searle’s Approach

Social Construction

The Role of Language

Critical Assessment

Bibliography

Speech Acts

J. L. Austin

The Performative/Constative Dichotomy

Austin’s Felicity Conditions on Performatives

Locutionary, Illocutionary, and Perlocutionary Speech Acts

J. R. Searle

Searle’s Felicity Conditions on Speech Acts

Searle’s Typology of Speech Acts

Indirect Speech Acts

Speech Acts and Culture

Cross-Cultural Variation

Interlanguage Variation

Bibliography

Syncategoremata

The History of the Distinction

Syntactic and Semantic Criteria of Drawing the Distinction

Philosophical Significance of the Distinction

Bibliography

Syntax-Semantics Interface

The Model of Perfection: Artificial Languages

Where Natural Languages Seem Imperfect

Theories of the Syntax-Semantics Mismatch

The Deep Split Structural Isomorphism Hypothesis

The Natural Language Perfection Hypothesis

The Imperfections Reflect the Architecture of Grammars Hypothesis

Shaking Things Up

How Specified Is Grammatical Meaning?

Where Does the Meaning Come From?

Bibliography

Systematicity

Some Varieties of Systematicity

Explaining Systematicity

Bibliography

T

Tacit Knowledge

The Early Debate

Tacit Knowing vs. the Full Propositional Attitudes

Tacit Knowing vs. Knowing How

What Is Tacit Knowledge?

Bibliography

Temporal Logic

Tense Logic

Syntax of Priorean Tense Logic

Semantics of Tense Logic

Extensions of Tense Logic

Increasing the Expressive Power: 'Since' and 'Until'

The Indeterminate Future

Interval Semantics

Other Forms of Temporal Logic

Bibliography

Tense and Time: Philosophical Aspects

Bibliography

Testimony

Testimony as a Belief Source

Testimony as a Knowledge Source

Skepticism

Perception and Understanding

Reductionism and Anti-reductionism

Summary

Bibliography

Thought and Language: Philosophical Aspects

The Relative Priority of Thought and Language

The Cartesian View

Behaviorism

Sellars: Language as a Precondition for Thought

A Closer Look at the Relation between Thought and Language

Bibliography

Transformational Grammar: Evolution

Early Transformational Grammar

Harris on Transformations

Chomsky on Transformations

Subtypes of Transformations

Rule Ordering

Transformations and Mental Processes

The 'Standard Theory'

Rule Interaction: the Transformational Cycle

The Organization of the Grammar

Generative Semantics

The Extended Standard Theory

The Lexicalist Hypothesis

Interpretive Semantics

Constraints on Movement Rules

Structure Preservation

Blind Application of Transformations

Trace Theory

Bibliography

Truth Conditional Semantics and Meaning

Bibliography

Truth: Primary Bearers

Introduction

The Case for the Sentence as the Primary Bearer of Truth-Value

Context and the Question of Truth Bearers

Ramifications of the Debate about Truth Bearers

The Scope of the Issue

Bibliography

Truth: Theories of in Philosophy

Traditional Theories

Deflationary Theories

Alternative Theories

Bibliography

20th-Century Linguistics: Overview of Trends

Introduction

20th-Century Linguistics vs. 19th-Century Linguistics: Continuities and Breakthroughs

Ferdinand de Saussure

Saussurean Trends in Europe

Geneva School

Prague School

Copenhagen School

Structural Linguistics in France: Benveniste, Martinet

Other European Scholars (Guillaume, Tesniegravere, London School)

American Linguistics from 1920s through 1960s

Sapir and His Heritage

Bloomfield

Post-Bloomfieldian Structuralism

Tagmemics and Stratificational Grammar

The Beginnings of Typological Linguistics

The Birth and Rise of Generative Grammar

The Origins of Generative Grammar

The Standard Theory

Generative Phonology

The Impact of Generative Grammar

Trends Stemming from Generative Grammar

Generative Semantics and Its Heritage

'One-Level' Approaches to Syntax

From EST to the 'Minimalist Program'

Trends Alternative to Generative Grammar

Functionalist Schools

Typological Linguistics

Sociolinguistics

Pragmatics

Bibliography

Two-Dimensional Semantics

Applications

Bibliography

Type versus Token

The Distinction

Its Usefulness

Universals

A Related Distinction

Do Types Exist?

Bibliography

U

Use Theories of Meaning

Bibliography

Use versus Mention

Bibliography

V

Vagueness: Philosophical Aspects

Hallmarks of Vagueness

Three Philosophical Debates About Vagueness

Philosophical Theories of Vagueness

Bibliography

Verificationism

Introduction

The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction

Observation Statements

Strong Verification

Strong Verification and Strong Falsification

Weak Verification

The Influence of Verificationism

Bibliography

Subject Index