Handbook of Descriptive Linguistic Fieldwork

Acknowledgements

Contents

Chapter Synopsis of a Handbookof Descriptive Linguistic Fieldwork

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: Definition and Goals of DescriptiveLinguistic Fieldwork

Chapter 3: The History of Linguistic Fieldwork

Chapter 4: Choosing a Language

Chapter 5: Field Preparation: Research, Psychological,and Practical

Chapter 6: Fieldwork Ethics: the Rightsand Responsibilities of the Fieldworker

Chapter 7: Native Speakers and Field Workers

Chapter 8: Planning Session, Note Taking,and Data Management

Chapter 9: Lexicography in Fieldwork

Chapter 10: Phonetic and Phonological Fieldwork

Chapter 11: Morphosyntactic Typology and Terminology

Chapter 12: Grammar Gathering Techniques

Chapter 13: Semantics, Pragmatics, and Text Collection

Chapter 1: Introduction

References

Chapter 2: Definition and Goals of Descriptive Linguistic Fieldwork

2.1 The Definition of Descriptive Linguistic Fieldwork

2.2 The Goals of Descriptive Linguistic Fieldwork

2.2.1 Primary Goals of Fieldwork

2.2.1.1 Documentary Linguistics

2.2.1.2 Descriptive Linguistics

2.2.1.3 On the Relationship Between Documentary and Descriptive Goals of Fieldwork

2.2.2 Secondary Goals of Descriptive Linguistic Fieldwork

2.2.2.1 Religious Instructional Goals

2.2.2.2 Instructional Goals Relating to the Preservation of Endangered Languages

2.2.3 Ancillary Goals of Descriptive Fieldwork

2.2.3.1 Non-comparative Theoretical Goals

2.2.3.2 Comparative Theoretical Goals

2.2.3.3 Dialectological or Sociolinguistic Goals

2.2.3.4 Goals Regarding the Study of Language, Culture, and Cognition

2.3 Aspirations and Limitations of Linguistic Fieldworkers

References

Chapter 3: The History of Linguistic Fieldwork

3.1 Introduction

3.1.1 Why Study the History of Fieldwork?

3.1.2 Limitations on the Study of the History of Fieldwork

3.1.3 Fieldwork as a Funded Enterprise in European and American Traditions

3.2 The History of Christian Missionary Linguistic Fieldwork

3.2.1 Early Activities in Africa and Asia

3.2.2 Missionary Beginnings in Latin America

3.2.3 Missionary Beginnings in North America

3.2.4 German Colonial Missionary Work in Africa

3.2.5 Missionary Work in Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the Pacific

3.2.6 The Interesting Case of Moravian Missionary Work

3.2.7 Other Nineteenth Century and Early Twentieth Century Missionary Work

3.2.8 The Summer Institute of Linguistics and the Wycliffe Bible Translators

3.2.9 Lessons from This Section

3.3 “Gentleman Scholars” and Linguistic Fieldwork

3.3.1 Busbecq and Crimean Gothic

3.3.2 Hennig von Jessen and Polabian

3.3.3 Lhuyd, Barrington, and the Last Speakers of Late Cornish

3.3.4 Imperial Britain

3.3.5 German “Gentleman Scholars” in the Nineteenth Century

3.3.6 Commissioned Wordlist Gathering

3.3.7 Lessons from This Section

3.4 Fieldwork in Less Than Optimal Circumstances

3.4.1 Slaves

3.4.2 Prisoners

3.4.3 Indigenous People in Exhibits, Museums or Hospitals

3.4.4 Exiled or Imprisoned Fieldworkers

3.4.5 Lessons from This Section

3.5 Fieldwork in Collaboration with Native Consultants

3.5.1 Native Speaker-Missionary Collaborations

3.5.2 Early Cases of Recognition of Native Speaker Talent and Insight

3.5.3 Native Speaker Linguists in the Boas-Sapir-Bloomfield Tradition

3.5.4 The Impact of Kenneth Hale

3.5.5 Lessons from This Section

3.6 Fieldwork Contemporaneous with Academic Traditions Less Supportive of Fieldwork

3.6.1 Fieldwork in Neogrammarian Times

3.6.1.1 Comparativist Fieldwork

3.6.1.2 Early Creolist Fieldwork

3.6.1.3 Early Phonetic and Phonological Fieldwork

3.6.1.4 Early Dialectological Fieldwork

3.6.2 Fieldwork During the Generative Paradigm

3.6.3 Lessons from This Section

3.7 Concluding Thoughts

3.7.1 The Role of Africanist Reflection in the History of Linguistic Fieldwork

3.7.2 The Role of Recent Awareness of Word-Wide Language Endangerment on Fieldwork

3.8 Lessons from This Chapter

References

Chapter 4: Choosing a Language

4.1 Another Outsider Chooses a Language for the Fieldworker

4.2 The Language Community Chooses the Fieldworker

4.3 The Fieldworker Chooses the Language

4.3.1 Criteria Influencing Language Choice

4.3.1.1 Linguistic Diversity and/or Conservativeness

4.3.1.2 Political Expediency

4.3.1.3 Logistical Expediency

4.3.1.4 Interpersonal Expediency

4.3.1.5 Personal Expediency

4.3.2 Resources Influencing Language Choice

4.3.2.1 Handbooks

4.3.2.2 Surveys

4.3.2.3 Bibliographies

4.3.2.4 Atlases and Maps

4.3.2.5 Specialized Journals

References

Chapter 5: Field Preparation: Philological, Practical, and Psychological

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Philological Preparation

5.2.1 Why Philological Preparation Matters

5.2.2 Advice on Philological Work

5.2.2.1 The Basic Rules

5.2.2.2 Advice Regarding Historical Linguistics

5.2.2.3 Advice Regarding Editions and Studies of Older Texts

5.2.2.4 Advice Regarding Lexical Materials and Dictionaries

5.2.2.5 Advice Regarding Grammars

5.2.2.6 Advice on Re-eliciting on the Basis of Older Sources

5.2.2.7 Advice Regarding Language Revitalization

5.2.3 Conclusions

5.3 Linguistic, Historical, Sociopolitical, and Cultural Preparation

5.4 Preparing to Learn a New Language and Script

5.5 Practical Preparation

5.5.1 Applying for Funding

5.5.2 Things to Take

5.5.2.1 Equipment

The Physical Environment

The Social Environment

The Speech Event

5.5.2.2 Travel Checklist

5.5.2.3 Travel Documents

5.6 Psychological Preparation

5.7 Preparing for Emergencies

5.8 Permissions

5.8.1 Central and Local Governments

5.8.2 Tribal or Cultural Councils

5.8.3 Gatekeepers

5.8.4 Home Institutions and Internal Review Boards

5.9 Conclusion

References

Chapter 6: Fieldwork Ethics: The Rights and Responsibilities of the Fieldworker

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Documentation

6.3 Responsibility for Speakers: Advocating, Empowering, Mobilizing

6.4 Responsibility for Students

6.5 Honesty in Research

6.6 Data Attribution and Ownership

6.7 Rights and Responsibilities Regarding Access to Data

6.8 Unintended Consequences of Fieldwork

6.9 Christian Evangelism and Fieldwork

6.10 Personal Behavior

6.11 Conclusion

References

Chapter 7: Native Speakers and Fieldworkers

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Leads

7.3 Timing

7.4 Selection Based on the Role of the Native Speaker

7.5 Selection Based on Speaker Characteristics

7.5.1 Attitudes Towards Language

7.5.2 Physical Condition and Age

7.5.3 Gender

7.5.4 Location

7.5.5 Education and Literacy

7.5.6 Personality Traits

7.5.7 Talent as Consultant

7.5.8 Language Proficiency

7.5.9 Availability

7.5.10 Objectives

7.6 Number of Consultants

7.6.1 Linguistic Competence and Language Use

7.6.2 Practical Considerations

7.6.3 Group Dynamics

7.7 Collective Fieldwork

7.8 Group Participatory Research

7.9 Long-Distance Consultants

7.10 Linguist Native Speaker

7.11 Third Party Interpretation

7.12 Payment and Gifts

7.13 Keeping Track of Consultants

7.14 Factors Influencing Consultant/Fieldworker Rapport

References

Chapter 8: Planning Sessions, Note Taking, and Data Management

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Meeting Speakers, Selecting a Site

8.3 Anatomy of a Linguistic Fieldwork Session

8.3.1 Warm-up

8.3.2 Task Selection

8.3.3 What to Record in a Session

8.3.4 How to Close a Session

8.4 Interviewing Techniques

8.4.1 Speech Acts in the Interview

8.4.2 Expectations and Demands

8.4.3 Evaluating Native Speaker Responses

8.4.4 Reacting to Native Speaker Responses

8.4.5 Maintaining Native Speaker Interest

8.4.6 Maintaining Roles During the Session

8.5 Note-Taking

8.6 Record-Keeping

8.6.1 Keeping Track of Audio Files and Associated Metadata

8.6.2 Keeping Track of Field Notes and Associated Metadata

8.7 Transfer of Data to Database

8.8 Transfer from Database to Archive

8.9 Keeping Track of Finances

References

Chapter 9: Lexicography in Fieldwork

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Wordlist Elicitation

9.2.1 Using a Basic Wordlist

9.2.1.1 Picture Prompts

9.2.1.2 Compiling an Expanded Wordlist

9.2.1.3 Texts

9.2.1.4 Dialect Surveys

9.2.2 Organizing Lexical Collections

9.2.3 Methods for Word Elicitation, Recording, Cataloging, and Checking

9.2.3.1 Interviewing Techniques

9.2.3.2 Recording Techniques

9.2.3.3 Techniques for Cataloging Lexical Data

9.2.4 Database Management and Lexicography

9.3 Bilingual Dictionaries

References

Chapter 10: Phonetic and Phonological Fieldwork

10.1 Preparing for Phonetic Fieldwork

10.2 Organizing Word Lists and Short Phrases

10.3 Recording Word Lists and Short Phrases

10.4 Finding Appropriate Consultants for Phonetic Fieldwork

10.5 Requirements of the Native Speaker

10.6 Transcription

10.7 Phonetic and Phonological Analysis

10.7.1 Collecting Minimal Pairs If Possible

10.7.2 Comparing Like Sounds in Various Phonetic Environments

10.7.3 Formulating Hypothesis, Preparing Questions

10.7.4 Accessing Native Speaker Input

10.7.4.1 Checking Transcriptions

10.7.4.2 Checking Hypotheses

Syllable Prompts

Substitution Tasks

Substitution with Rhyming

10.8 Suprasegmentals

10.8.1 Fast Speech

10.8.2 Syllables and Phonotactic Constraints

10.8.3 Stress

10.8.4 Tone

10.8.4.1 Selection of Consultants

10.8.4.2 Frames

10.8.4.3 Transcription

10.8.4.4 Confirmation

10.8.5 Intonation

10.9 Conclusion

References

Chapter 11: What to Expect in Morphosyntactic Typology and Terminology

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Grammatical Typology and Terminology

11.2.1 Preparatory Reading for Grammatical Fieldwork

11.2.1.1 Typological Surveys and Manuals

11.2.1.2 Descriptive Grammars

11.2.1.3 Other Resources

11.2.2 Formal Marking Systems

11.2.2.1 Head Versus Dependent Marking, or Locus

11.2.2.2 Inverse Marking

11.2.2.3 Switch Reference Marking

11.2.3 Lexical and Grammatical Categories

11.2.3.1 Lexical Categories

Nouns and Verbs

Nouns

Verbs

Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives

Adverbs

Noun Adjuncts

Verb Adjuncts

Conjunctions

Pro-forms

Words That Cut Across Lexical Categories

The “Other” or Residue Category

11.2.3.2 Grammatical Categories

Grammatical Categories Characteristic of Noun Phrases

Semantic Roles

Pragmatically Marked Status

Case

Possession

Number

Noun Class or Gender

Noun Classification

Deixis

Grammatical Categories Characteristic of Verb Phrases

Tense

Aspect

Mood/Mode/Modality

Voice

Valence or Valency

Polarity

Control/Noncontrol

Subject Person and Number

Object Person and Number

Associated Motion

Grammatical Categories Characteristic of Clauses or Sentences

Validationality

Evidentiality

Mirativity

Polarity

Speech Act Distinctions

11.3 Morphological Typology and Terminology

11.3.1 Preparatory Reading for Morphological Fieldwork

11.3.2 Formal Morphological Typology

11.3.3 Terminological Issues in Morphology

11.3.3.1 Complex Terminological Issues in Morphology

Word

Morpheme

Stem, Root, Radical, Theme, and Base

11.3.3.2 Formal Morphological Terminology

Concatenative Morphology

Nonconcatenative Morphology

11.3.3.3 Functional Morphological Terminology

Inflectional and Derivational Morphology

Derivational Morphology

Inflectional Morphology

Morphology That Is Neither Derivational nor Inflectional

Headedness in Morphology

Grammaticalization and Lexicalization

11.4 Syntactic Typology and Terminology

11.4.1 Preparatory Reading for Syntactic Fieldwork

11.4.2 Theories of Syntax

11.4.3 Ordering, Transforming, and Combining

11.4.4 Constituents, Constructions, and Hierarchical Structure

11.4.4.1 Clauses

11.4.4.2 Noun Phrases

11.4.4.3 Verb Phrases or Verbal Predicates

11.4.4.4 Verbless Predicate Phrases

11.4.5 Headedness and Dependency

11.4.6 Modularity

11.4.7 Syntactic Mechanisms

11.4.8 Fuzziness, Clines, and Grammatical Hierarchies

11.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 12: Grammar Gathering Techniques

12.1 Introduction

12.1.1 Three Questions on Grammar Gathering

12.1.1.1 Theory-Driven or Data-Driven Data Gathering

12.1.1.2 Directionality in Data Gathering

12.1.1.3 What Data Are Worth Collecting?

12.1.2 Terminology and Classification

12.2 Morphosyntax Gathering Techniques

12.2.1 Schedule-Controlled Elicitation

12.2.1.1 Analytical Questionnaires

12.2.1.2 Translation Questionnaires

12.2.1.3 Survey of Analytical and Translation Questionnaires

12.2.2 Analysis-Controlled Elicitation

12.2.2.1 Target Language Interrogation Elicitation (Easy)

12.2.2.2 Stimulus-Driven Elicitation

Prop-Driven Elicitation (Easy)

Pictorial Stimulus-Driven Elicitation (Medium Difficulty)

12.2.2.3 Target Language Manipulation Elicitation

Word-List Based Elicitation (Easy)

Paradigmatic Substitution Elicitation (Easy)

Fieldworker-Driven Paradigmatic Substitution Elicitation (Medium difficulty)

Syntagmatic Elicitation (Easy)

Transformational Elicitation (Medium Difficulty)

Fieldworker-Driven Transformational Elicitation (Difficult)

Corrective Elicitation (Difficult)

12.2.2.4 Target Language Translation Elicitation (Medium Difficulty)

12.2.2.5 Target Language Construction and Introspective Judgment Elicitation (Perilous)

12.2.2.6 Reverse Translation Elicitation (Perilous)

12.2.2.7 Review Elicitation (Medium Difficulty to Perilous)

12.2.2.8 Ancillary Elicitation (Easy to Difficult)

12.2.2.9 Covert Elicitation (Easy to Perilous)

12.2.2.10 Meta-Elicitation (Difficult to Perilous)

12.3 Morphology Gathering Techniques

12.3.1 Schedule-Controlled Elicitation for Morphology

12.3.2 Analysis-Controlled Elicitation for Morphology

12.3.2.1 Paradigm-Filling Elicitation

12.3.2.2 Eliciting Bound and Free Morphemes

12.3.2.3 Eliciting Stems and Roots

12.3.2.4 Eliciting Noun and Adjective Morphology

12.3.2.5 Eliciting Verb Morphology

12.3.3 An Illustration of Morphological Elicitation from Athabascan

12.4 Syntax Gathering Techniques

12.4.1 Schedule-Controlled Elicitation for Syntax

12.4.2 Analysis-Controlled Elicitation for Syntax

12.4.2.1 Target Language Manipulation in Syntax

Word Movement Elicitation

Sentence Combination Elicitation

Intonational or Stress Elicitation

12.4.2.2 Target Language Translation in Syntax

12.4.2.3 Target Language Construction and Introspective Judgments in Syntax

12.4.2.4 Reverse Translation in Syntax

12.4.2.5 Ancillary Elicitation in Syntax

12.5 Some Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 13: Semantics, Pragmatics, and Text Collection

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Semantics and Fieldwork

13.2.1 Lexical Semantics

13.2.2 Sentence Meaning

13.3 Pragmatics and Fieldwork

13.3.1 Deixis

13.3.2 Conversational Implicature

13.3.3 Presupposition

13.3.4 Speech Acts

13.3.5 Conversation Structure

13.4 Texts

13.4.1 Advantages of Text Collection

13.4.2 Types of Texts

13.4.3 Obtaining Texts

13.4.4 Recording and Analyzing Narratives

13.4.4.1 Recording

13.4.4.2 Video Recordings

13.4.4.3 Rough Translation

13.4.4.4 Transcribing

13.4.4.5 Word-for-Word Translation

13.4.4.6 Constituent analysis and Free Translation

13.4.4.7 Morphological Analysis

13.4.4.8 The Final Product

13.4.5 Recording and Analyzing Conversations

13.4.6 Working with an Existing Corpus of Texts

References

Index