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The History, Use, Disposition and Environmental Fate of Agent Orange
Alvin Lee Young
Verlag Springer-Verlag, 2009
ISBN 9780387874869 , 339 Seiten
Format PDF, OL
Kopierschutz Wasserzeichen
The History, Use, Disposition and Environmental Fate of Agent Orange
2
Preface
5
Acknowledgments
7
Contents
10
Alvin L. Young Biographical Sketch, 2008
16
Vietnam and the Agent Orange Controversy Revisited
18
1.1 Background
18
1.2 The Use of Tactical Herbicides in the Vietnam War
20
1.3 The Disposal of Agent Orange
23
1.4 Finding a Resolution to Vietnam Veterans’ Health Concerns
24
1.5 The Return to Vietnam
28
1.6 Methodological Issues in Assessing Impacts
31
1.7 Overview of the Book
33
References
35
A History of the Development and Procurement of Tactical Herbicides
40
2.1 Background
40
2.2 The Initial Development of Tactical Herbicides
41
2.2.1 Previous Research Supporting the Initial Deployment of Tactical Herbicides in Vietnam
42
2.2.2 The Selection of the First Tactical Herbicides for Use in South Vietnam
43
2.3 The Defoliation Conferences
48
2.4 The Major Three Tactical Herbicides Used in Vietnam
54
2.5 Physical Properties, Handling and Safety Evaluations of the Tactical Herbicides
57
2.6 The Procurement and Management of Tactical Herbicides
58
2.6.1 Purchase Descriptions for the Tactical Herbicides
58
2.6.2 Quantities of Tactical Herbicides Procured
60
2.6.3 Ports of Embarkation
61
2.6.4 Management of the Tactical Herbicides
61
2.6.5 Summary of What Defined Tactical Herbicides
63
2.7 The Role of the Armed Forces Pest Control Board and Commercial Herbicides
63
2.7.1 Summary of the Use of Commercial Herbicides by the DOD
66
2.8 Implications of Tactical Versus Commercial Herbicides
66
References
66
The Military Use of Tactical Herbicides in Vietnam
73
3.1 Environmental Characteristics of South Vietnam
74
3.2 The Rationale for Herbicide Use in South Vietnam
76
3.3 Combat Tactical Zones
79
3.4 Historical Background on Early Spray Missions
81
3.5 Use Patterns of Individual Herbicides
82
3.6 Historical and Procedural Information on Operation RANCH HAND
84
3.6.1 Deployment of Aircraft
84
3.6.2 Development, Test, and Evaluation of Aerial Spray Systems for Vietnam
86
3.6.3 RANCH HAND Support Activities and Concepts
90
3.6.4 Accidental Spills
97
3.7 MACV Directive 525-1: Herbicide Procedures and Operations
98
3.8 Post Approval Procedures in Operation RANCH HAND
99
3.9 Coordinating RANCH HAND Spray Missions
102
3.10 Encountering a Hostile Environment
103
3.11 The Critical Role of the Forward Air Controller
105
3.12 Executing the Spray Mission
106
3.13 Preparation of the Daily Air Activity Report (DAAR)
108
3.14 Other Herbicide Requests
112
3.15 The Role of the Army Chemical Corps
113
3.16 Herbicide Operations in the Individual Combat Tactical Zones
116
3.17 The Preparation, Accuracy, and Use of the Military Records
121
3.18 Other Sources of Herbicide Consumption Data
123
3.19 The Accuracy of Geographic Data
126
3.20 Alternate Methods of Clearing Vegetation
127
3.21 Insecticides and Operation FLYSWATTER
128
3.22 Termination of Herbicide Use
130
References
131
Removal from Vietnam and Final Disposition of Agent Orange
136
4.1 Background
136
4.2 Operation PACER IVY
138
4.3 Storage and Maintenance of Agent Orange in the United States
149
4.4 Operation PACER HO
157
4.4.1 Selection of At-Sea Incineration and Discussion of Alternative Methods
157
4.4.2 Operation PACER HO
158
4.4.3 Description of Land-Based Operations
160
4.4.4 Operations at the Naval Construction Battalion Center
160
4.4.5 Operations at Johnston Island, Central Pacific Ocean
166
4.4.6 Land-Based and Shipboard Air Monitoring Programs
170
4.4.7 Brief Description of Shipboard Operations
170
4.4.8 The Termination of Operation PACER HO
171
References
173
Agent Orange and its Dioxin Contamination
176
5.1 The Significance of the Dioxin Contaminant in Agent Orange
176
5.2 Formation of the TCDD Contaminant
177
5.3 Establishing Agent Orange and its Contaminant as a Major Public Health Issue
180
5.4 Composition of Agent Orange and Associated Contaminants
184
5.5 Estimates of Quantities of Tactical Herbicides Procured by the Defense Supply Agency
187
5.6 The Initial Analysis of Dioxin Contamination in the Agent Orange Inventory
189
5.6.1 Sampling the NCBC and Johnston Island Inventories of Agent Orange
189
5.6.2 Air Force Results of Johnston Island Analyses for Dioxin
192
5.6.3 Results of the Naval Construction Battalion Center Analyses
193
5.7 A Re-analysis of TCDD in Agent Orange Stocks
194
5.7.1 A Re-evaluation of the NCBC and Johnston Island Agent Orange Inventories
194
5.7.2 Statistical Methodology for Air Force Data
195
5.7.3 Results for NCBC and Johnston Island Agent Orange Inventories
196
5.8 TCDD Data from the NIOSH Studies of 2,4,5-T Production
197
5.8.1 Statistical Analysis of Dioxin Levels in Production Samples of 2,4,5-T Formulations
197
5.8.2 Results and Discussion of NIOSH Data Sets
200
5.9 Conclusions as to the Amount of TCDD Disseminated in South Vietnam
200
References
201
The Testing of Aerial Spray Equipment, and Ecological Impacts of the Programs at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida
206
6.1 Introduction
206
6.2 Background
208
6.3 Test and Evaluations Projects on Test Area C-52A
214
6.4 Hardstand 7 Herbicide Loading and Storage Site
215
6.5 Herbicides/Chemicals Sprayed in the Test and Evaluation Programs
223
6.6 TCDD in Agent Orange and Purple Disseminated on the Test Area
224
6.7 The Military’s Response to the Herbicides Sprayed on Test Area C-52A
226
6.8 Chemical and Bioassay Studies of Soil Cores from Test Area C-52A
229
6.9 Studies of the Vegetation of Test Area C-52A
236
6.9.1 Synopsis of Vegetative Studies
236
6.9.2 Discussion of the Sampling Procedure, Results, and Photographic Records
238
6.9.3 Studies of the Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, and Amphibians
244
6.9.4 Aquatic Studies
248
6.9.5 Insect Studies
252
6.9.6 Summary of Ecological Surveys
253
6.10 Persistence of TCDD in the Soils of Test Area C-52A
253
6.11 Routes of TCDD Disappearance on Test Girds Receiving 2,4,5-T Herbicide
256
6.12 Animal Studies of TCDD Uptake
258
6.13 Long-term Field Studies of the Beachmouse, Peromyscus polionotus
261
6.14 Actions to Control the Movement of TCDD from Hardstand 7 and Test Area C-52A
268
6.15 Conclusions
269
References
271
Monitoring Studies of Former Agent Orange Storage Sites in Mississippi and Johnston Island
277
7.1 Requirements for Site Reclamation of NCBC and Johnston Island
278
7.2 Historical Background on the Naval Construction Battalion Center
280
7.2.1 The Issue of Defective and Damaged Drums
281
7.2.2 Results of the USAF Academy Monitoring Program, 1974-1976
283
7.2.3 Environmental Health Laboratory Monitoring Program, 1974-1976
285
7.3 Historical Background on Johnston Island
286
7.3.1 Results of Early Monitoring Programs on Johnston Island
287
7.3.2 Potential Water Contamination of Johnston Island
288
7.4 Design of the Protocol for Monitoring the Herbicide Storage Sites
290
7.4.1 Preliminary Evaluation of the Protocol at NCBC
291
7.4.2 Implementation of the Formal Protocol
293
7.4.3 Chemical Analyses of Samples
294
7.4.4 Microbial Analyses of Samples
295
7.5 Results and Discussion of Herbicide and Microbial Data
295
7.6 Aquatic System Monitoring for TCDD at NCBC, 1977-1979
301
7.7 Management Recommendations for the NCBC Herbicide Storage Site
304
7.8 Implementation of the AFESC Herbicide Orange Monitoring Program
306
7.9 Site Characterization Study of NCBC in Preparation for Reclamation
308
7.10 Final Reclamation Actions at the Naval Construction Battalion Center
309
7.11 The Reclamation of the Johnston Island Herbicide Storage Site
311
References
313
Agent Orange and Dioxin Remediation and the Return to Vietnam
317
8.1 The National Academy of Sciences Study, 1971-1974
317
8.2 The Period of Limited Access to Vietnam and Studies on Agent Orange, 1976-1995
319
8.3 Normalization Between the United and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, 1995-Present
322
8.4 The Agent Orange Dioxin Remediation Workshops, 2005-2007
323
8.4.1 Background on the Workshops
323
8.4.2 The 1st Agent Orange and Dioxin Remediation Workshop, August 2005
324
8.4.3 The 2nd Agent Orange and Dioxin Remediation Workshop, June 2007
327
8.4.4 History and Maps of the Former Tactical Herbicide Storage and Loading Sites in Vietnam
328
8.4.4.1 Tactical Herbicide Mapping Project
328
8.4.4.2 Distribution of Tactical Herbicides
329
8.4.4.3 Construction of Air Field Maps
330
8.4.4.4 The Issue of Hot Spots
332
8.4.4.5 Follow-On Activities
334
References
334
PostludeCan There be a Satisfactory End to the AgentOrange Controversy?
339
The Resolution in Vietnam
339
The Resolution for Vietnam Veterans
341
References
341
Index
343