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Obesity Prevention - The Role of Brain and Society on Individual Behavior
Laurette Dube, Laurette Dube, Antoine Bechara, Alain Dagher, Adam Drewnowski, Jordan LeBel, Philip J
Verlag Elsevier Reference Monographs, 2010
ISBN 9780080922096 , 832 Seiten
Format PDF, ePUB, OL
Kopierschutz DRM
Front Cover
1
Obesity Prevention: The Role of Brain and Society on Individual Behavior
4
Copyright Page
5
Contents
6
List of contributors
16
Preface
20
Acknowledgments
22
Introduction: On the Brain-to-Society Model of Motivated Choice and the Whole-of-Society Approach to Obesity Prevention
24
Part 1. FROM BRAIN TO BEHAVIOR
32
A. Energy is Delight: Sensory and Reward Systems
34
Chapter 1 The Pleasures and Pains of Brain Regulatory Systems for Eating
36
1.1 Introduction
36
1.2 Satiety Agents versus Aversion-Inducing Agents
37
1.3 Various Methodologies to Evaluate Affective Change in Pre-Clinical Appetite Research
38
1.4 Conditioned Taste Aversions – From Animal Models to Human Brain Analysis?
43
1.5 Conclusion
44
References
44
Chapter 2 The Neurobiology of Appetite: Hunger as Addiction
46
2.1 Introduction
46
2.2 Hunger as Addiction
47
2.3 Response to Conditioned Cues
48
2.4 Functional Brain Imaging of Cue Reactivity
51
2.5 Conclusion
51
References
52
Chapter 3 Opioids: Culprits for Overconsumption of Palatable Foods?
54
3.1 Introduction
54
3.2 Opioids and Feeding Behavior in Rodent Models
55
3.3 Opioids and Dysregulation of Eating Patterns and Body Weight in Human Beings
62
3.4 Conclusions and Perspectives
64
References
65
Chapter 4 Taste, Olfactory and Food-texture Processing in the Brain and the Control of Appetite
72
4.1 Introduction
73
4.2 Taste-Processing in the Primate Brain
73
4.3 The Representation of Flavor: Convergence of Olfactory, Taste and Visual Inputs in the Orbitofrontal Cortex
75
4.4 The Texture of Food, Including Fat Texture
75
4.5 Imaging Studies in Humans
75
4.6 Cognitive Effects on Representations of Food
77
4.7 Synthesis
78
4.8 Implications for Understanding, Preventing, and Treating Obesity
78
4.9 Concluding Remarks
83
References
84
Chapter 5 Cortical and Limbic Activation in Response to Low- and High-calorie Food
88
5.1 Introduction
88
5.2 Brain Responses to Food Stimuli in Healthy Adults
89
5.3 Modulating Factors
92
5.4 Cortical and Limbic Activation to Food Images During Adolescent Development
96
5.5 Conclusion
99
References
99
Chapter 6 Reward-related Neuroadaptations Induced by Food Restriction: Pathogenic Potential of a Survival Mechanism
104
6.1 Introduction
104
6.2 Food Restriction may Augment Neurobiological Responses to Palatable Food in a Way that Promotes Addictive Behavior
106
6.3 Food Restriction Enhances CNS and Behavioral Responses to Drugs of Abuse and Dopamine Receptor Agonists
107
6.4 Food Restriction Up-regulates D1 Dopamine Receptor-Mediated Phosphorylation of Ionotropic Glutamate Receptors and Signaling Proteins that Underlie Synaptic Plasticity
108
6.5 Striatal Neuroadaptations Induced by Food Restriction may be Secondary to Changes in Pre-synaptic Dopamine Neuronal Function
110
6.6 A Schema to Consider as Research Continues
111
References
112
B. Executive Control Systems and the Challenges They Face in the Modern World of Plenty
118
Chapter 7 The Neuroeconomics of Food Selection and Purchase
120
7.1 Introduction
120
7.2 Positive Valuations
121
7.3 Influences on Positive Valuations
121
7.4 Negative Valuations
124
7.5 Influences on Negative Valuations
126
7.6 Selection
127
7.7 Habits
131
7.8 Conclusions
132
References
132
Chapter 8 Resisting Temptation: Impulse Control and Trade-offs between Immediate Rewards and Long-term Consequences
136
8.1 Introduction
136
8.2 A Neural System for Decision-Making and Will-power: The Somatic Marker Hypothesis
137
8.3 Empirical Evidence for Deficits of Decision-making Underlying Obesity
139
8.4 Conclusion
143
References
143
Chapter 9 Hunger, Satiety, and Food Preferences: Effects of the Brain and the Body on the Self-Control of Eating
146
9.1 Introduction
146
9.2 The Components of Self-control
147
9.3 Physiological Influences on Self-control
148
9.4 Promoting Self-control for a Healthy Body Weight
152
9.5 Conclusions
153
References
153
Chapter 10 Associative Learning and the Control of Food Intake
156
10.1 A Behavioral Reporting of Eating
156
10.2 Eating is a Learned Behavior
157
10.3 Forms of Learned Ingestive Response
157
10.4 Sensory-specific Anticipatory Eating
158
10.5 Diurnal Rhythms and the Learned Response
161
10.6 Nutrients and Cognition
161
10.7 Dietary Fats and Learning
161
10.8 Our Primitive Brain
162
References
162
Chapter 11 Restrained Eating in a World of Plenty
166
11.1 Introduction
166
11.2 The Effects of Having Food Cues Present
167
11.3 Response to Food Cues in Restrained and Unrestrained Eaters
167
11.4 Food Photographs and/or Words – Indirect Food Cues
169
11.5 Portion Size as Food Cue
170
11.6 The Removal of Food Cues
171
11.7 Caloric Restriction in Animals and Humans
171
11.8 Is CR Likely to be Effective for Humans?
172
11.9 Caloric Restriction in the Presence of Food Cues
173
11.10 Dieting in a World of Food Cues
175
References
175
C. Biological Systems that Favor a Positive Energy Balance and Body-weight Increase in a World of Plenty
178
Chapter 12 The Genetic Determinants of Ingestive Behavior: Sensory, Energy Homeostasis and Food Reward Aspects of Ingestive Behavior
180
12.1 Introduction
180
12.2 Sensory Determinants of Food Intake
182
12.3 Energy Homeostasis Pathways and Food Intake
183
12.4 Reward Circuits and Food Intake
186
12.5 Conclusions
187
References
188
Chapter 13 Development of Human Learned Flavor Likes and Dislikes
192
13.1 Introduction
192
13.2 Understanding Flavor Perception
193
13.3 Why Innate Flavor-liking is Rare
194
13.4 Flavor-preference Learning
195
13.5 Different Learning Mechanisms Interact to Enhance Flavor-liking
199
13.6 Liking and Intake: The Role of Palatability in Overeating
200
13.7 Acquired Liking as a Driver of Overeating
201
13.8 Individual Differences in Learning
202
13.9 Summary
204
References
204
Chapter 14 Biopsychological Factors and Body-weight Stability
210
14.1 Introduction
210
14.2 Is Knowledge-based Work a Potential Determinant of the Current Obesity Epidemic?
211
14.3 Is Short Sleep Duration a Potential Determinant of the Current Obesity Epidemic?
214
14.4 Weight Loss: Not Always Beneficial for the Psychological Health
215
14.5 Physical Activity and Diet: What is the Impact on Body-weight Stability?
217
14.6 Conclusion and Perspectives
217
References
218
Chapter 15 Nutrition, Epigenomics and the Development of Obesity: How the Genome Learns from Experience
222
15.1 The Basics of Epigenetics and Epigenomics
222
15.2 Epigenetic Marks During Development and Aging
224
15.3 Nutritional Epigenomics
225
15.4 Epigenetics and Brain Function
227
15.5 An Epigenetic Basis for Developmental Programming of Obesity?
228
15.6 Physical Activity, Epigenetic Markings and Obesity
228
15.7 Concluding Comments
229
References
230
Chapter 16 The Role of Early Life Experiences in Flavor Perception and Delight
234
16.1 Introduction
234
16.2 Flavor and the Ontogeny of the Senses
236
16.3 Taste and Development
238
16.4 Learning about Food Flavors
242
16.5 Concluding Remarks
243
References
244
Chapter 17 Implications of the Glycemic Index in Obesity
250
17.1 Introduction
250
17.2 The concept of the Glycemic Index
251
17.3 Mechanisms of Action
252
17.4 Effects of low GI Foods on Appetite, Food Intake and Satiety
253
17.5 GI and Obesity
255
17.6 GI and Diabetes
255
17.7 GI and Cardiovascular Disease
256
17.8 Conclusion
257
References
257
Chapter 18 Characterizing the Homeostatic and Hedonic Markers of the Susceptible Phenotype
262
18.1 The Approach
263
18.2 Susceptible and Resistant Phenotypes
263
18.3 What Would a Susceptible Phenotype Look Like?
264
18.4 What Level of Analysis is Appropriate?
264
18.5 Appetite is Not Rocket Science – It is More Complicated
265
18.6 Diversity, Susceptibility and Homeostasis
265
18.7 Hedonics: The Importance of Liking and Wanting
266
18.8 Comparing Susceptible and Resistant Phenotypes
267
18.9 Resistance to Weight Loss – The Other Side of Susceptibility
268
18.10 Conclusions
269
References
269
Chapter 19 The Carnivore Connection: Cross-population Differences in the Prevalence of Genes Producing Insulin Resistance
272
19.1 Background
272
19.2 The Evolution of Insulin Resistance
273
19.3 Determinants of Insulin Resistance
275
19.4 Candidate Genes and Cross-population Genetic Differences
277
19.5 Conclusion
279
References
279
Chapter 20 Neuroanatomical Correlates of Hunger and Satiaty in Lean and Obese Individuals
284
20.1 Physiology of Hunger and Satiety in Human Eating Behavior
284
20.2 Functional Neuroimaging Evidence
285
References
289
Chapter 21 Neuroendocrine Stress Response and Its Impact on Eating Behavior and Body Weight
292
21.1 Introduction
292
21.2 Hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal Axis
293
21.3 Stress and Food Intake: It is Not all Homeostatic or Automatic
294
21.4 Imaging Studies in Humans
295
21.5 Peripheral Signals Regulating Energy Balance
296
21.6 Conclusion
298
References
299
D. Integrative and Multi-level Models of Eating and of Energy and Body-weight Regulation
304
Chapter 22 Eating Behavior and its Determinants: From Gene to Environment
306
22.1 Introduction
306
22.2 Genes
307
22.3 The Environment
307
22.4 Genes – Environment Interactions
309
22.5 A General Model of Intake Regulation
311
22.6 Discussion
313
References
314
Chapter 23 The Molecular Regulation of Body Weight: The Role of Leptin, Ghrelin and Hypocretin
318
23.1 Introduction
318
23.2 Leptin, Ghrelin and Hypocretin
319
23.3 Leptin Protein
319
23.4 Ghrelin Protein
321
23.5 Hypocretin Protein
322
23.6 Concluding Remarks
324
References
325
Chapter 24 Energy Balance Regulation: Complex Interplay between the Autonomic and Cognitive/Limbic Brains to Control Food Intake and Thermogenesis
330
24.1 Introduction
330
24.2 The Regulation of Energy Balance
331
24.3 Brain Pathways Involved in the Control of Food Intake and Thermogenesis
332
24.4 Conclusion
340
References
341
E. Individual-level Interventions to Tap into Appropriate Brain Systems for Sustainable Behavioral Change
348
Chapter 25 Stealth Interventions for Obesity Prevention and Control: Motivating Behavior Change
350
25.1 Motivation for Behavior Change
350
25.2 Self-efficacy
351
25.3 Stealth Interventions
351
25.4 Social and Ideological Movements as Stealth Interventions to Change Health Behaviors
354
25.5 Conclusion
355
References
357
Chapter 26 From Diets to Healthy and Pleasurable Everyday Eating
360
26.1 The Diet Zeitgest
360
26.2 A New Weight Paradigm
366
26.3 The New Paradigm's Contribution to Solving the Obesity Epidemic
368
References
370
Chapter 27 Resisting Temptations: How Food-Related Control Abilities can be Strengthened through Implementation Intentions
374
27.1 Introduction
374
27.2 The Motivational Nature of Food
375
27.3 Food-Related Control Abilities
377
References
381
Chapter 28 The Dieter's Dilemma: Identifying When and How to Control Consumption
384
28.1 Introduction
384
28.2 A Two-stage Model of Self-control: Identification versus Resolution
385
28.3 Conclusions
392
References
393
Chapter 29 Lifestyle Change and Maintenance in Obesity Treatment and Prevention: A Self-determination Theory Perspective
396
29.1 Introduction
396
29.2 Self-determination Theory
397
29.3 Self-regulation
397
29.4 Need-supportive Contexts
398
29.5 SDT and Weight Loss
400
29.6 Potentional Limitations of Current Interventions: An SDT Perspective
401
29.7 Directions for Future Research Based on SDT
402
References
403
Chapter 30 Nutritional Genomics in Obesity Prevention and Treatment
406
30.1 Background
406
30.2 The Genetics of Obesity
407
30.3 Nutritional Genomics
410
30.4 The Role of Gene Polymorphisms
411
30.5 The Role of Gene Expression
412
30.6 From Bench to Bedside: Predicting Outcome
415
30.7 Outlook
416
References
417
Chapter 31 Physical Activity for Obese Children and Adults
422
31.1 Introduction
422
31.2 Adults and Physical Activity
423
31.3 Physical Activity and Young People
423
31.4 Linking Physical Activity and Obesity
424
31.5 The Model
425
31.6 Fit or Fat
430
31.7 Conclusion
430
References
430
Part 2. FROM SOCIETY TO BEHAVIOR: POLICY AND ACTION
434
A. Economy as a Core Society System Shaping Policy and Action that Determine Behavior
436
Chapter 32 Economic Growth as a Path Toward Poverty Reduction, Better Nutrition and Sustainable Population Growth
438
32.1 Introduction and a Definition of Terms
438
32.2 What is Needed to Accelerate and Sustain Growth?
440
32.3 Country Case Study: China and India
441
32.4 The Case of Undernutrition and Obesity
444
References
447
Chapter 33 The Human Agent, Behavioral Changes and Policy Implications
448
33.1 The Economic and Psychological View of Human Nature
448
33.2 Culture as an Economic Externality
449
33.3 A Psychologist's Explanation of Behavior
449
33.4 Happiness, or the Power of Human Adaptability
450
33.5 An Argument for Some Paternalism
451
References
452
Chapter 34 The Four Pillars of the Industrial Machine: Can the Wheels be Steered in a Healthier Direction?
454
34.1 Introduction
454
34.2 Malthus' World
455
34.3 How Nations Become Wealthy
456
34.4 The Progress of Economic Development
457
34.5 Measuring Economic Development
460
34.6 The 2 Percent Productivity Cruise Control
460
34.7 The Obesity Connection
461
34.8 The Way Forward
462
References
463
Chapter 35 Libertarian Paternalism: Nudging Individuals toward Obesity Prevention
466
35.1 Introduction
466
35.2 Biases and Shortcomings in Human Decision-making
467
35.3 On Libertarian Paternalism
469
35.4 Libertarian Paternalism Applied
471
35.5 Limitations and Conclusion
471
References
472
B. Needs and Challenges in Policy and Action to Prevent Obesity
474
Chapter 36 The Current State of the Obesity Pandemic: How We Got Here and Where We Are Going
476
36.1 The Current State of the Obesity Pandemic
476
36.2 How did We Get Here?
487
36.3 The Complexity of the Problem
492
References
492
Chapter 37 The Underweight/Overweight Paradox in Developing Societies: Causes and Policy Implications
494
37.1 Introduction
494
37.2 The Reasons Underlying the Underweight/Overweight "Paradox"
495
37.3 Public Policies Needed to Tackle the Coexistence of Underweight/Overweight
497
37.4 Applying the WHO Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health
499
37.5 Conclusion
499
References
499
Chapter 38 The Drivers of Body Weight, Shape and Health: An Indian Perspective of Domestic and International Influences
502
38.1 Introduction
503
38.2 Overweight and Obesity in Indian Children and Youth
503
38.3 Trends Influencing Intake
506
38.4 Trends in Energy Expenditure
511
38.5 Cross-cutting Issues
513
38.6 Conclusions
514
References
515
Chapter 39 Diets and Activity Levels of Paleolithic versus Modern Humans: Societal Implications for the Modern Overweight Pandemic
518
39.1 Introduction
518
39.2 The Four Eras of Change of Human Diets
519
39.3 Contrasting Food Intake during the Paleolithic Era versus Today
520
39.4 Energy Expenditure and Physical Inactivity
521
39.5 The Tipping Point of Energy Imbalance
522
39.6 Insights from Paleolithic Diets to Fight the Obesity Pandemic
522
References
523
C. Policy and Action to Shift the Drivers of Food Supply and Demand of the Agriculture and Agri-Food Value Chains in a Healthy Direction
526
Chapter 40 Agriculture, Food and Health
528
40.1 Introduction and Context
529
40.2 Food Consumption and Nutrition Situation
529
40.3 Agriculture–Nutrition Linkages
531
40.4 Analysis of South Asian Dietary Energy Supply and Nutrition Status
533
40.5 Dietary Transition in Asian Countries
534
40.6 The Impact of Urbanization
535
40.7 Overweight and Obesity in Asia
536
40.8 Policy Interventions
537
40.9 Conclusion and Recommendations
539
References
539
Chapter 41 Changing Food Systems in the Developing World
542
41.1 Introduction
542
41.2 Factors Driving Changes in Food Demand
543
41.3 Factors Driving Changes in Food Supply
545
41.4 Impact of Changes in Food Supply and Demand
546
41.5 The Key Role of Institutions and Research
549
References
550
Chapter 42 Green Revolution 2.5: From Crisis to a New Convergence Between Agriculture, Agri-Food and Health for Healthy Eating Worldwide
552
42.1 Introduction
553
42.2 Novel and Convergent Solutions for Agriculture, Agri-Food and Health
553
42.3 An Integrated Approach to the Food and Nutrition Value Chain
554
42.4 Challenges and Opportunities in Developing Green Revolution 2.5
556
42.5 Conclusion
559
References
559
Chapter 43 How High-level Consumer Research Can Create Low-caloric, Pleasurable Food Concepts, Products and Packages
560
43.1 Introduction
560
43.2 Where did this Systematic, RDE Approach Come From?
561
43.3 Designing the Product and Communicating It
561
References
572
Chapter 44 Reductions in Dietary Energy Density to Moderate Children's Energy Intake
574
44.1 Introduction
574
44.2 What is Energy Density?
575
44.3 Why is Energy Density Important?
576
44.4 Does Energy Density Influence Energy Intake?
576
44.5 Practical Strategies to Reduce Energy Density
578
44.6 Will Reducing the Energy Density of the Diet Benefit Every Child?
581
44.7 Future Directions in Energy Density Research
581
44.8 Conclusions
582
References
582
Chapter 45 Nurturing and Preserving the Sensory Qualities of Nature
586
45.1 Introduction
586
45.2 Determinants of Individual Food Choices and Current "Healthful Eating" Trends
588
45.3 Preserving the Natural Sensory Qualities of Food
592
References
596
Chapter 46 Aligning Pleasures and Profits: Restaurants as Healthier Lifestyle Enablers
598
46.1 Introduction
598
46.2 Industry Overview
599
46.3 Food-Away-From-Home Demand Drivers
601
46.4 How Restaurants Compete
603
46.5 Ways Forward
604
46.6 Conclusion
608
References
608
Chapter 47 A Study of Corporate Social Responsibility Activities of 12 Giant Food Companies (1980–2008) in Promoting Healthy Food
610
47.1 Introduction
610
47.2 Literature Review
612
47.3 Data, Sample and Methodology
613
47.4 Results and Sensitivity Analysis
615
47.5 Conclusion
618
Appendix A
618
Appendix B
619
Appendix C
620
References
620
D. Policy and Action for Creating Families, Schools, Communities and Social Networks that Support Individual Healthy Choice
622
Chapter 48 The Injunctive and Descriptive Norms Governing Eating
624
48.1 Introduction
624
48.2 Injunctive versus Descriptive Eating Norms
624
48.3 Norms are Situational
626
48.4 Socialization and the Creation of Eating Norms
626
48.5 Norm Violations
629
48.6 The Effect of Eating Norms on Health Outcomes
631
48.7 Affecting Norms through Marketing
631
48.8 Conclusion
632
References
632
Chapter 49 Family Meal Patterns and Eating in Children and Adolescents
636
49.1 Introduction
636
49.2 Do Family Meals Promote Good Nutrition?
637
49.3 Do Family Meals Promote Healthy Weights?
640
49.4 Do Family Meals Promote Health in Overweight Children?
642
49.5 Do Family Meals have Other Benefits?
642
49.6 What are Strategies to Promote Family Meals?
643
49.7 What Actions can Communities Take to Promote Family Meals?
644
49.8 What Remains to be Learned about Family Meals?
645
References
645
Chapter 50 Social Influences on Eating in Children and Adults
648
50.1 Introduction
648
50.2 Social Influences on the Control of Intake in Adults
649
50.3 Social Influence on Food Selection in Adults
651
50.4 Social Influences on the Control of Intake in Children
652
50.5 Social Influences on Food Selection in Children
654
50.6 Concluding Remarks
655
References
656
Chapter 51 Church- and Other Community Interventions to Promote Healthy Lifestyles: Tailoring to Ethnicity and Culture
660
51.1 Introduction
660
51.2 Background
661
51.3 Cultural Targeting and Tailoring in Community Settings
663
51.4 Religious Organizations as Communities within Communities
667
51.5 Challenges
673
51.6 Conclusion
677
References
678
Chapter 52 On Gluttony: Religious and Philosophical Responses to the Obesity Epidemic
684
52.1 Introduction
684
52.2 What is Gluttony?
685
52.3 What is Wrong with Gluttony?
686
52.4 Conclusions
690
References
691
Chapter 53 Social Alliances: Moving Beyond Corporate Social Responsibility to Private–Public Partnerships
692
53.1 Introduction
692
53.2 Partnership in Social Alliances
693
53.3 Social Alliances as a Strategy for Corporate Branding
694
53.4 Societal Interventions as Strategic Alliances
694
53.5 The Case Study Intervention
697
53.6 Discussion of the Case Study
700
53.7 Conclusion
700
References
701
Chapter 54 Social Networks, Social Capital, and Obesity: A Literature Review
704
54.1 Definition of Terms
704
54.2 Methodology
705
54.3 Two Debates
705
54.4 Social Capital and Obesity Literature
711
54.5 Final Considerations
714
References
715
Chapter 55 From Society to Behavior: Neighborhood Environment Influences
718
55.1 Introduction
718
55.2 Identification of Neighborhoods
721
55.3 Neighborhood Boundary Definition
721
55.4 Identification and Assessment of Neighborhood Environment Characteristics
722
55.5 Findings and Limitations
723
55.6 Conclusions and Implications
726
References
727
E. Challenges and Possibilities for Policy and Action in Reducing the Social and Economic Gradients in Health, Lifestyle and Obesity
730
Chapter 56 Social Determinants of Health and Obesity
732
56.1 Introduction
732
56.2 The Social Gradient of Health
733
56.3 Obesity and the Social Gradient of Health
734
56.4 The Burden of Disease
735
56.5 The WHO Commission on the Social Determinants of Health and a Possible Explanatory Framework
737
56.6 Applying the Framework to Policy
738
56.7 Targeted and Universal Policies
740
56.8 Conclusion
741
References
742
Chapter 57 The Role of the Environment in Socio-Economic Status and Obesity
744
57.1 Introduction
744
57.2 Food Consumption
745
57.3 Physical Activity
751
57.4 Summary and Conclusions
753
References
754
Chapter 58 The Economics of Obesity: Why are Poor People Fat?
758
58.1 Introduction
758
58.2 How do People Make Food Choices?
759
58.3 Energy-dense Foods Cost Less
760
58.4 Healthier Diets Cost More
761
58.5 The Growing Price Disparity in Food Costs
763
58.6 Does Restricting Food Costs Lead to Energy-dense Diets?
765
58.7 Why are Poor People Fat?
766
58.8 Approaches to Obesity Prevention
767
References
769
F. Challenges and Possibilities for a Broad Systems Approach to Policy and Action
776
Chapter 59 Challenges in Making Broad Healthy Lifestyle Plans: Revisiting the Nature of Health Interventions
778
59.1 The Context of Non-communicable Diseases
778
59.2 The Current Health Policy Framework
779
59.3 The Need for Joined-up Policy-making
780
59.4 The WHO Global Strategy for Diet, Physical Activity and Health
780
59.5 Improving the Global Policy Framework
782
59.6 Insights from Tobacco Control Efforts
783
59.7 Engaging the Private Sector
783
59.8 Conclusions
784
References
785
Chapter 60 Social Interactions and Obesity: An Economist's Perspective
788
60.1 Introduction
788
60.2 The Different Guises of Social Interactions
789
60.3 The Literature so Far
792
60.4 Policy Interventions Related to Social Interactions
793
60.5 Conclusions
795
References
795
Chapter 61 A Complex Systems Approach to Understanding and Combating the Obesity Epidemic
798
61.1 Introduction
798
61.2 Challenges for Study and Intervention Design
799
61.3 Complex Adaptive Systems
800
61.4 Applying a Complex Systems View to Obesity
802
61.5 Agent-based Computational Modeling
804
61.6 Conclusion
805
References
806
Chapter 62 Conclusion: A Whole-of-Society Approach to Obesity Prevention: New Frontiers in Science, Policy and Action, and the Emerging Models of Capitalism and Society to Make it Possible
810
62.1 Introduction
810
62.2 New Frontiers in Science
811
62.3 New Frontiers in Policy
813
62.4 New Frontiers in Action
814
62.5 Emerging Models of Capitalism and Society
816
References
817
Index
818
A
818
B
819
C
819
D
820
E
821
F
822
G
824
H
824
I
825
J
826
K
826
L
826
M
826
N
826
O
827
P
828
Q
829
R
829
S
829
T
831
U
831
V
831
W
831
Y
832
Z
832